Tag: diet

Metabolic and Endocrine System Networks

24 July 2017

EndoMetaNetworks

What are the most effective strategies to optimise health and performance? There are ever more emerging possibilities, permutations and combinations to chose from.

The simple answer is that the most effective option will depend on your starting point and what you are trying to achieve. In all cases exercise and activity levels are the fundamental basis for health and performance. Regarding nutritional strategies to support effective exercise adaptations, no single component of your dietary intake can be considered in isolation. After all, the metabolic pathways and Endocrine axes in your body work as an interactive network, with an important temporal dimension.

Emerging evidence implicates resistance to the anabolic pancreatic hormone, insulin, as the underlying pathological process in the development of metabolic syndrome. What type of diet might drive or conversely counter this process involving metabolism and the Endocrine system? The standard approach, of calorie restriction and aggressive pharmacological treatment of raised lipids, does not produce the anticipated reduction in cardiovascular mortality. Rather the synergistic effect of a diet high in both fat and carbohydrate induces hypothalamic inflammation and dysfunction in the control system of energy metabolism. The hypothalamus is the neuroendocrine gatekeeper providing the crucial link between internal and external stimuli and homeostasis of the internal milieu through integrated Endocrine responses. Intriguingly there is as an inflammatory component to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease.

The interaction between metabolic, Endocrine and inflammatory networks is seen in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). The clinical diagnosis of PCOS relies on two of three diagnostic criteria (menstrual disturbance, hyperandrogenism, ovarian morphology). However, the underlying metabolic disruption for all phenotypes of the condition, from overweight to slim, is insulin resistance. The link between adverse body composition, metabolic and Endocrine dysfunction has recently been described. Adipokines, a class of cytokine, including adiponectin and resistin are produced by adipose tissue and exert an effect on metabolism, including insulin sensitivity and inflammation. Changes in plasma concentrations and/or expression of adipokines are seen in metabolic dysfunction and potentially have direct and indirect effects on the hypothalmic-pituitary-gonadal axis in PCOS.

Further evidence of the crucial interaction between metabolic and Endocrine systems and health was found in a longitudinal study of children, quantifying heart rate variability and the energy and inflammatory related biomarkers leptin (atherogenic) and adiponectin (anti-atherogenic) as potential predictive markers in cardiovascular screening/prevention.

Exogenous hormones impact not only the endogenous Endocrine system, but have metabolic effects. The intended purpose of the combined oral contraceptive pill (OCP) is to suppress ovulation. Another effect on the Endocrine system is to increase production of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), which binds free testosterone. This has a therapeutic effect in the treatment of PCOS to lower elevated testosterone, however this may not be such a desirable effect in female athletes, where higher range testosterone levels as associated with performance advantages in certain power events. In the case of female athletes with relative energy deficiency in sports (RED-S), use of the OCP masks underlying hypothalamic amenorrhoea and is not effective in bone health protection. Further areas where Endocrine manipulation impacts metabolism are an increase in oxidative stress with OCP use and alterations in nutritional requirements due to alteration of absorption of vitamins and minerals such as vitamin B complex and magnesium, which are vital for enzymic processes involved in energy production. Yet an elevation of ferritin as an acute phase reactant is seen. These interactions of Endocrine and metabolic networks are particularly important considerations for the female athlete.

There is no single elixir for health and performance.  We are individuals with subtle differences in our genetic and epigenetic make up, including the diversity of our microbiome. Furthermore, the Endocrine and metabolic milieu changes during our lifespan. Personalised health and performance strategies must take account of the complex, intricate interactions between the Endocrine and metabolic networks.

For further discussion on Health, Hormones and Human Performance, come to the BASEM annual conference

References

One road to Rome: Metabolic Syndrome, Athletes, Exercise Dr N.Keay

Endocrine system: balance and interplay in response to exercise training Dr N. Keay

Dietary sugars, not lipids, drive hypothalamic inflammation Molecular Metabolism June 2017

Saturated fat does not clog the arteries: coronary heart disease is a chronic inflammatory condition, the risk of which can be effectively reduced from healthy lifestyle interventions British Journal of Sport and Exercise Medicine

Adiponectin and resistin: potential metabolic signals affecting hypothalamo-pituitary gonadal axis in females and males of different species Reproduction: Journal for the Society of Reproduction and Fertility 2017

Longitudinal Associations of Leptin and Adiponectin with Heart Rate Variability in Children Front. Physiol 2017

AKR1C3-mediated adipose androgen generation drives lipotoxicity in women with polycystic ovary syndrome J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2017

Hormones and Sports Performance Dr N. Keay

Mechanisms for optimal health…for all athletes! Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport and Exercise Medicine

Oxidative Stress in Female Athletes Using Combined Oral Contraceptives Sports Medicine – Open

Oral contraceptives and changes in nutritional requirements European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences

Inflammation: Why and How Much? Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

 

 

Fatigue, Sport Performance and Hormones…

2 May 2017

How do you feel on Monday morning, when the alarm wakes you at 7am with a day of work ahead after the weekend? A bit tired, slightly lethargic, sluggish, maybe a little bit down, perhaps a few regrets about somewhat too much alcohol/food over weekend, frustrated that the exercise training schedule didn’t go according to plan?sleep

There are many causes of fatigue and sport underperformance: Endocrine, immunological, infective, metabolic, haematological, nutritional, digestive, neoplastic….. The adrenal gland in the Endocrine system in particular has come in for some bad press recently.

Adrenal woes

Undoubtedly the adrenal glands have a case to answer. Situated above the kidneys these Endocrine glands produce glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens from the adrenal cortex and from the adrenal medulla adrenaline. Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) have a metabolic function to maintain energy homeostasis and an immune function to suppress inflammation. Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone) maintain electrolyte and water balance. As mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids are similar biological steroid molecules, there is some degree of overlap in their actions.

Addison’s disease and Cushing’s disease are serious medical conditions, corresponding respectively to under or over production by the adrenal glands of steroid hormones. Someone presenting in Addisonian crisis is a medical emergency requiring resuscitation with intravenous hydrocortisone and fluids. Conversely those with Cushing’s can present with hypertension and elevated blood glucose. Yet, apart from in the extremes of these disease states, cortisol metrics do not correlate with clinical symptoms. This is one reason why it is unwise and potentially dangerous to stimulate cortisol production based on clinical symptoms. Inappropriate exogenous steroid intake can suppress normal endogenous production and reduce the ability to respond normally to “stress” situations, such as infection. This is why the prescription of steroids, for example to reduce inflammation in autoimmune disease, is always given in a course of reducing dose and a steroid alert card has to be carried. Athletes should also be aware that exogenous steroid intake is a doping offence.

However, what is the “normal” concentration for cortisol? Well, for a start, it depends what time of day a sample is taken, as cortisol is produced in a circadian rhythm, with highest values in the morning on waking and lowest levels about 2/3am. Nor is this temporal periodicity of production the only variable, there are considerations such as tissue responsiveness and metabolism (break down) of the hormone. On top of these variables there are other inputs to the feedback control mechanism, which can in turn influence these variables. In other words, focusing on the steroid hormone production of the adrenal gland in isolation, could overlook underlying hypothamalmic-pituitary-adrenal (H-P-A) axis dysfunction and indeed wider issues.

Much maligned thyroid

That is not end of the possible causes of fatigue and sport underperformance: the H-P-A axis is just one of many interrelated, interacting Endocrine systems. There are many neuroendocrine inputs to the hypothalamus, the gate keeper of the control of the Endocrine system. Furthermore there are network interaction effects between the various Endocrine control feedback loops. For example cortisol towards the top end of “normal” range can impede the conversion at the tissue level of thyroxine (T4) to the more active triiodothyronine (T3) by enzymes which require selenium to function. Rather T4 can be converted to reverse T3 which is biologically inactive, but blocks the receptors for T3 and thus impair its action. This in turn can interfere with the feedback loop controlling thyroid function (hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis). The physiological ratio of T4 to T3 is 14:1, which is why supplementation with desiccated thyroid is not advisable with ratio of 4:1. There are other processes which can crucially interfere with this peripheral conversion of T4 to T3, such as inflammation and gut dysbiosis, which can occur as result of strenuous exercise training. So what might appear to be a primary thyroid dysfunction can have an apparently unrelated underlying cause. Indeed amongst highly trained athletes thyroid function can show an unusual pattern, with both thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and T4 at low end of the “normal “range, thought to be due to resetting of the hypothalamic-pituitary control signalling system. This highlights that the “normal” range for many hormones comprises subsets of the population and in the case of TSH, the “normal” range is not age adjusted, despite TSH increasing with age. As described by Dr Boelaert at recent conferences, there is certainly no medical justification for reports of some athletes in the USA being given thyroxine with TSH>2 (when the normal range is 0.5-5mU/l). Although thyroxine is not on the banned list for athletes, it could have potentially serious implications for health due to its impact on the Endocrine system as a whole.

Endocrine system interactions

SportsEndocrinologyWordCloud

Symptoms of fatigue are common to many clinical conditions, not just dysfunction in an Endocrine control axis in isolation, nor even the network interactive effects of the Endocrine system in isolation. For example, the impact of nutrition relative to training load produces a spectrum of clinical pictures and Endocrine disturbances seen in Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) in terms of health and sport performance.

Underlying mechanisms of Endocrine dysfunction

There may be predisposing factors in developing any clinical syndrome, the usual suspects being inflammation: whether infective, dysbioses, autoimmune; nutritional status linked with endocrine status;  training load with inadequate periodised recovery to name a few….

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

From population based norms to personalised medicine: Health, Fitness, Sports Performance British Journal of Sport Medicine 2017

Sports Endocrinology – what does it have to do with performance? British Journal of Sport Medicine 2017

Advanced Medicine Conference, Royal College of Physicians, London 13-16 February 2017, Endocrine session: Dr Kristien Boelaert, Dr Helen Simpson, Professor Rebecca Reynolds

Subclinical hypothydroidism in athletes. Lecture by Dr Kristeien Boelaert, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine Spring Conference 2014. The Fatigued Athlete

Sport Performance and RED-S, insights from recent Annual Sport and Exercise Medicine and Innovations in Sport and Exercise Nutrition Conferences British Journal of Sport Medicine 2017

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport CPD module British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Sleep for health and sports performance British Journal of Sport Medicine 2017

Inflammation: why and how much? British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Clusters of athletes British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Enhancing Sport Performance: Part 1 British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Balance of recovery and adaptation for sports performance British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Annual Sport and Exercise Medicine Conference, London 8/3/17 Gut Dysbiosis, Dr Ese Stacey

Adrenal fatigue does not exist: a systematic review BMC Endocrine Disorders. 2016; 16(1): 48.

A Controversy Continues: Combination Treatment for Hypothyroidism Endocrine News, Endocrine Society April 2017

Inflammation: why and how much?

19 February 2017

Inflammation: optimal or overreaction

Systemic autoimmune disease is a chronic overreaction of the inflammatory system. Exercise training is structured to provoke the optimal level of inflammation for adaptation to facilitate sport performance. This blog describes some of the recent significant advances in the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of inflammation and its interactions with the endocrine system, immunity and the microbiome, in relation to autoimmune disease. Applying this knowledge to the adaptive inflammatory effects of training in sport represents a potentially hugely beneficial area of future research.

The ubiquitous microbiomea-muciniphila-233x300

There has been much discussion on the key role of the microbiome, eloquently described by Professor Tim Spector, Professor of Genetic Epidemiology, King’s College, London at recent conferences at the Royal Society of Medicine and The Royal College of Physicians. The microbiome is the DNA of all the microbes in our body. The diversity of the microbiota community in the gut wall of the colon appears to have the most profound effects in terms of disease prediction and indeed a better indicator of developing autoimmune conditions (such as inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis) and metabolic conditions (such as obesity and diabetes mellitus) than our own DNA. So how does the diversity of the gut microbiome have such a profound impact?

It appears that in order to promote diversity of the gut micobiota, prebiotics such as inulin found in fibrous foods should be ingested and then “fertilised” with probiotics found in fermented foods. Enhancing the diversity of the gut microbiome supports the production of short-chain fatty acids which have far reaching influences on epigenetic and immune regulation, the brain, gut hormones and the liver. Furthermore, the diurnal rhythmic movement of the gut microbiota have been shown to regulate host circadian epigenetic, transcriptional and metabolite oscillations which impacts host physiology and disease susceptibility.

In inflammatory conditions such as autoimmune disease, a decrease in the diversity of “good” microbiota has been described. Furthermore, if a decrease in beneficial microbiota is the primary event, then this can lead to an increase in the likelihood of developing autoimmune disease. What is the mechanism of this dynamic interaction between the microbiome and immunity?

Immunity and inflammation

In recent research, the protein receptor marker of microbiota in the gut has been shown to modulate intestinal serotonin transporter activity. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine 5-HT) has shown to be an essential intestinal physiological neuromodulator that is also involved in inflammatory bowel disease. In addition, an increase in inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha, is know to be associated with low levels of cerebral serotonin and dopamine. The causal link between disrupted immune function and increased inflammation, as in autoimmune disease, is an unfavourable microbiome. Development of autoimmune disease is often multifactorial, for example,  a change in the microbiome might trigger gene expression with adverse effects. Indeed gene expression (independent of sex steroids) has been shown to account for increased prevalence of autoimmune disease in women.

Depression of serotonin levels

Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are know to be linked to depression. Hence prescription of selective serotonin uptake inhibitors to those suffering with depression. However recent research has now revealed a dynamic interaction between peripheral and cerebral effects of the microbiome on immunity and mood, mediated via the circadian release of key hormones such as serotonin. Serotonin is synthesised from precursor tryptophan in the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. Low mood in autoimmune disease could be due to psychological factors: knowing that this is a chronic condition with reduced life expectancy. Reduced serotonin, may be a further biochemical reason. Potentially lack of sleep due to pain in autoimmune disease would also suppress serotonin levels.

Applications for microbiome/immunity/inflammation interactions

How will these findings from recent research help in optimising inflammatory mediated adaptations to exercise training and support the understanding and treatment of autoimmune disease? It has been suggested that serotonin could be a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, as 5HT appears to have a peripheral immuno-regulatoty role in the pathophysiology of this autoimmune disease. Optimising the microbiome, with prebiotics and probiotics, may improve disease activity and improve response to treatment with biologics.

Is the nature of an autoimmune disease such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) changing? Deformed hands with swollen joints were a perennial favourite for medical examinations. However as described recently at a conference at Royal College of Physicians, although joint destruction is still a feature of RA, this seems to be accompanied by less joint swelling and involvement of greater range of joints. Are the triggers changing rather than a change in the nature of disease? How do nutrition and medication impact the microbiome?

For athletes, apart from periodising energy requirements and micronutrients to support training, encouraging a diverse microbiome will potentially support adaptive changes to training.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Balance of recovery and adaptation for sports performance. Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sports and Exercise Medicine

Sleep for health and sports performance. Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport and Exercise Medicine

Conference Royal Society of Medicine. “Food: the good, the bad and the ugly” 1/2/17

“Food, microbes and health” Professor Tim Spector, Professor of Genetic Epidemiology, King’s College, London

“Nutrition and the gut: food as trigger for disease; food as medicine” Dr Charlie Lees, Chair Scottish Society of Gastroenterology IBD Interest Group. European Crohn’s and Colitis Organisation Committe

“Nutrition and its effect on the immune system” Dr Liam O’Mahony, Head of Molecular Immunology, swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research

Advanced Medicine Conference. Royal College of Physicians 13-16 February 2017

” The gut microbiome clinical and physiological tolerance” Professor Tim Spector, Professor of Genetic Epidemiology, King’s College, London

“Rheumatoid arthritis-ensuring everyone gets the best treatment” Dr Neil Snowden

Microbiota Diurnal Rhythmicity Programs Host Transcriptome Oscillations Cell Volume 167, Issue 6, p1495–1510.e12, 1 December 2016

Intestinal Serotonin Transporter Inhibition by Toll-Like Receptor 2 Activation. A Feedback Modulation. Eva Latorre , Elena Layunta, Laura Grasa, Marta Castro, Julián Pardo, Fernando Gomollón, Ana I. Alcalde †, José E. Mesonero. Published: December 29, 2016

A gene network regulated by the transcription factor VGLL3 as a promoter of sex-biased autoimmune diseases. Yun Liang, Lam C Tsoi, Xianying Xing, Maria A Beamer, William R Swindell, Mrinal K Sarkar, Celine C Berthier, Philip E Stuart, Paul W Harms, Rajan P Nair, James T Elder, John J Voorhees, J Michelle Kahlenberg & Johann E Gudjonsson
Nature Immunology 18, 152–160 (2017)

Serotonin Is Involved in Autoimmune Arthritis through Th17 Immunity and Bone Resorption. Yasmine Chabbi-Achengli, Tereza Coman, Corinne Collet, Jacques Callebert, Michelangelo Corcelli, Hilène Lin, Rachel Rignault, Michel Dy, Marie-Christine de Vernejoul, Francine Côté. The American Journal of Pathology. April 2016 Volume 186, Issue 4, Pages 927–937

Optimal health: for all athletes! Part 4 Mechanisms

17 January 2017

As described in previous blogs, the female athlete triad (disordered eating, amenorrhoea, low bone mineral density) is part of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports (RED-S). RED-S has multi-system effects and can affect both female and male athletes together with young athletes. The fundamental issue is a mismatch of energy availability and energy expenditure through exercise training. As described in previous blogs this situation leads to a range of adverse effects on both health and sports performance. I have tried to unravel the mechanisms involved. Please note the diagram below is simplified view: I have only included selected major neuroendocrine control systems.

REDs

Low energy availability is an example of a metabolic stressor. Other sources of stress in an athlete will be training load and possibly inadequate sleep. These physiological and psychological stressors input into the neuroendocrine system via the hypothalamus. Low plasma glucose concentrations stimulates release of glucagon and suppression of the antagonist hormone insulin from the pancreas. This causes mobilisation of glycogen stores and fat deposits. Feedback of this metabolic situation to the hypothalamus, in the short term is via low blood glucose and insulin levels and in longer term via low levels of leptin from reduced fat reserves.

A critical body weight and threshold body fat percentage was proposed as a requirement for menarche and subsequent regular menstruation by Rose Frisch in 1984. To explain the mechanism behind this observation, a peptide hormone leptin is secreted by adipose tissue which acts on the hypothalamus. Leptin is one of the hormones responsible for enabling the episodic, pulsatile release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) which is key in the onset of puberty, menarche in girls and subsequent menstrual cycles. In my 3 year longitudinal study of 87 pre and post-pubertal girls, those in the Ballet stream had lowest body fat and leptin levels associated with delayed menarche and low bone mineral density (BMD) compared to musical theatre and control girls. Other elements of body composition also play a part as athletes tend to have higher lean mass to fat mass ratio than non-active population and energy intake of 45 KCal/Kg lean mass is thought to be required for regular menstruation.

Suppression of GnRH pulsatility, results in low secretion rates of pituitary trophic factors LH and FSH which are responsible for regulation of sex steroid production by the gonads. In the case of females this manifests as menstrual disruption with associated anovulation resulting in low levels of oestradiol. In males this suppression of the hypothamlamic-pituitary-gonadal axis results in low testosterone production. In males testosterone is aromatised to oestradiol which acts on bone to stimulate bone mineralisation. Low energy availability is an independent factor of impaired bone health due to decreased insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) concentrations. Low body weight was found to be an independent predictor of BMD in my study of 57 retired pre-menopausal professional dancers. Hence low BMD is seen in both male and female athletes with RED-S. Low age matched BMD in athletes is of concern as this increases risk of stress fracture.  In long term suboptimal BMD is irrecoverable even if normal function of hypothamlamic-pituitary-gonadal function is restored, as demonstrated in my study of retired professional dancers. In young athletes RED-S could result in suboptimal peak bone mass (PBM) and associated impaired bone microstructure. Not an ideal situation if RED-S continues into adulthood.

Another consequence of metabolic, physiological and psychological stressor input to the hypothalamus is suppression of the secretion of thyroid hormones, including the tissue conversion of T4 to the more active T3. Athletes may display a variation of “non-thyroidal illness/sick euthyroid” where both TSH and T4 and T3 are in low normal range. Thyroid hormone receptors are expressed in virtually all tissues which explains the extensive effects of suboptimal levels of T4 and T3 in RED-S including on physiology and metabolism.

In contrast, a neuroendocrine control axis that is activated in RED-S is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In this axis, stressors increase the amplitude of the pulsatile secretion of CRH, which in turn increases the release of ACTH and consequently cortisol secretion from the adrenal cortex. Elevated cortisol suppresses immunity and increases risk of infection. Long term cortisol elevation also impairs the other hormone axes: growth hormone, thyroid and reproductive. In other words the stress response in RED-S amplifies the suppression of key hormones both directly and indirectly via endocrine network interactions.

The original female athlete triad is part of RED-S which can involve male and female athletes of all ages. There are a range of interacting endocrine systems responsible for the multi-system effects seen in RED-S. These effects can impact on current and future health and sports performance.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Teaching module on RED-S for BASEM as CPD for Sports Physicians

Optimal health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Optimal health: including male athletes! Part 2 Relative Energy Deficiency in sports Dr N.Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine 4/4/17

Optimal health: especially young athletes! Part 3 Consequences of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine

Keay N, Fogelman I, Blake G. Effects of dance training on development,endocrine status and bone mineral density in young girls. Current Research in Osteoporosis and bone mineral measurement 103, June 1998.

Jenkins P, Taylor L, Keay N. Decreased serum leptin levels in females dancers are affected by menstrual status. Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society. June 1998.

Keay N, Dancing through adolescence. Editorial, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol 32 no 3 196-7, September 1998.

Keay N, Effects of dance training on development, endocrine status and bone mineral density in young girls, Journal of Endocrinology, November 1997, vol 155, OC15.

Relative Energy Deficiency in sport (REDs) Lecture by Professor Jorum Sundgot-Borgen, IOC working group on female athlete triad and IOC working group on body composition, health and performance. BAEM Spring Conference 2015.

Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, Carter S, Constantini N, Lebrun C, Meyer N, Sherman R, Steffen K, Budgett R, Ljungqvist A. The IOC consensus statement: beyond the Female Athlete Triad-Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S).Br J Sports Med. 2014 Apr;48(7):491-7.

“Subclinical hypothydroidism in athletes”. Lecture by Dr Kristeien Boelaert at BASEM Spring Conference 2014 on the Fatigued Athlete

From population based norms to personalised medicine: Health, Fitness, Sports Performance Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Optimal health: especially young athletes! Part 3 Consequences of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports

13 January 2017

In my previous blogs I have described the adverse effects of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports (RED-S) in both female and male athletes both in terms of current health and sport performance and potential long term health problems. What about young aspiring athletes? There is concern that early sport specialisation, imbalances in training not covering the full range of the components of fitness, together with reduced sleep, all combine to increase injury risk. Young athletes are particularly vulnerable to developing RED-S during a period of growth and development accompanied by a high training load.

Sufficient energy availability and diet quality, including micronutrients, is especially important in young athletes. To investigate further I undertook a three year longitudinal study involving 87 pre- and post-pubertal girls, spread across control pupils at day school together with students in vocational training in both musical theatre and ballet streams. There was a gradation in hours of physical exercise training per week ranging from controls with least, followed by musical theatre, through to ballet stream with the most.

In all girls dietary, training and menstrual history were recorded and collected every six months. At the same visit anthropometric measurements were performed by an experienced Paediatric nurse and bloods were taken for Endocrine markers of bone metabolism and leptin. Annual DEXA scans measured body composition, total body bone mineral density (BMD) and BMD at lumbar spine (including volumetric) and BMD at femoral neck.

The key findings included a correlation between hours of training and the age of menarche and subsequent frequency of periods. In turn, any menstrual dysfunction was associated with low age-matched (Z score) BMD at the lumbar spine. There were significant differences between groups for age-matched (Z score) of BMD at lumbar spine, with musical theatre students having the highest and ballet students the lowest. There were no significant differences in dietary intake between the three groups of students, yet the energy expenditure from training would be very different. In other words, if there is balance between energy availability and energy expenditure from training, resulting in concurrent normal menstrual function, then such a level of exercise has a beneficial effect on BMD accrual in young athletes, as demonstrated in musical theatre students. Conversely if there is a mismatch between energy intake and output due to high training volume, this leads to menstrual dysfunction, which in turn adversely impacts BMD accrual, as shown in the ballet students.

I was fortunate to have two sets of identical twins in my study. One girl in each twin pair in the ballet stream at vocational school had a twin at a non-dance school. So in each twin set, there would be identical genetic programming for age of menarche and accumulation of peak bone mass (PBM). However the environmental influence of training had the dominant effect, as shown by a much later age of menarche and decreased final BMD at the lumbar spine in the ballet dancing girl in each identical twin pair.

After stratification for months either side of menarche, the peak rate of change for BMD at the lumbar spine was found to be just before menarche, declining rapidly to no change by 60 months post menarche. These findings suggest that optimal PBM and hence optimal adult BMD would not be attained if menarche is delayed due to environmental factors such as low energy density diet. If young athletes such as these go on to enter professional companies, or become professional athletes then optimal, age-matched BMD may never be attained as continued low energy density diet and menstrual dysfunction associated with RED-S may persist. Associated low levels of vital hormones such as insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and sex steroids impair bone microarchitecture and mineralisation. Thus increasing risk of injury such as stress fracture and other long term health problems. The crucial importance of attaining peak potential during childhood and puberty was described at a recent conference at the Royal Society of Medicine based on life course studies. For example, delay in puberty results in 20% reduction of bone mass.

Graph from study of dancers (Keay et al) showing change in BMD according to time from menarche

slide10

It is concerning that RED-S continues to occur in young athletes, with potential current and long term adverse consequences for health. Young people should certainly be encouraged to exercise but with guidance to avoid any potential pitfalls where at all possible. In my next blog I will delve into the Endocrine mechanisms involved in RED-S: the aetiology and the outcomes.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Optimal Health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Optimal health: including male athletes! Part 2 Relative Energy Deficiency in sports Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine 4/4/17

Keay N. The modifiable factors affecting bone mineral accumulation in girls: the paradoxical effect of exercise on bone. Nutrition Bulletin 2000, vol 25, no 3. 219-222.

Keay N The effects of exercise training on bone mineral accumulation in adolescent girls. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. Vol 15, suppl 1 2000.

Keay N, Frost M, Blake G, Patel R, Fogelman I. Study of the factors influencing the accumulation of bone mineral density in girls. Osteoporosis International. 2000 vol 11, suppl 1. S31.

New S, Samuel A, Lowe S, Keay N. Nutrient intake and bone health in ballet dancers and healthy age matched controls: preliminary findings from a longitudinal study on peak bone mass development in adolescent females, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 1998

Keay N, Dancing through adolescence. Editorial, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol 32 no 3 196-7, September 1998.

Bone health and fractures in children. National Osteoporosis Society

Lifetime influences on musculoskeletal ageing and body composition. Lecture by Professor Diana Kuh, Director of MRC Unit for Lifelong Healthy Ageing, at Royal Society of Medicine, conference on Sports Injuries and sports orthopaedics. 17/1/17

Relative Energy Deficiency in sport (REDs) Lecture by Professor Jorum Sundgot-Borgen, IOC working group on female athlete triad and IOC working group on body composition, health and performance. BAEM Spring Conference 2015.

Health and fitness in young people

Optimal health: including male athletes! Part 2 Relative Energy Deficiency in sports

9 January 2017

Screen Shot 2018-02-25 at 16.51.20

As discussed in my previous blog Optimal health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones, the female athlete triad is well described since 1984. The triad comprises disordered eating, amenorrhoea and reduced bone mineral density (BMD). What was uncertain was whether this was a reversible training effect. My study of professional retired pre-menopausal female dancers demonstrated that such bone loss is irreversible, despite resumption of menses. Furthermore, low body weight, independent of amenorrhoea, causes BMD loss. A few female athletes in my subsequent longitudinal study of professional dancers in the English National Ballet company were “robust” and continued to menstruate, in spite of low body weight. However this could have involved anovulatory cycles and therefore low oestrogen. One parameter cannot be considered in isolation.

Furthermore, it has become apparent that the female athlete triad is just part of a much larger picture, known as Relative Energy Deficiency in sport (RED-S). The fundamental issue is that of energy deficiency caused by a mismatch of energy intake and energy expenditure from exercise training. Quality of diet, including micronutrients is also important.

If you are a male athlete, you may be thinking that this is all just a problem for female counterparts? No. Male athletes can also develop RED-S, especially in sports where low body weight confers a sport performance advantage, for example long-distance runners and road cyclists (especially climbers). In a fascinating lecture, Professor Jorum Sundgot-Borgen from the Department of Sport Medicine, at the Norwegian School of Sport and Exercise Science, described the occurrence in male ski jumpers.

This energy deficient state in RED-S in both female and male athletes produces a cascade, network effect on multiple systems: immune, cardiovascular, endocrine, metabolic and haematological effects. Clearly suboptimal functioning in these key areas has implications for current physical and psychological health of athletes and therefore their sport performance. The psychological element is of note as this may be both cause and effect of RED-S. After all in order to be a successful, especially in sport, a high level of motivation, bordering on obsession, is required. Although athletes with RED-S may not fall into a defined clinical disease state, they demonstrate a subclinical condition that impacts health. Performance implications include decreased training response with reduced endurance, muscle strength and glycogen storage, alongside an increased risk of injury, probably due to impaired adaptive response to training and a decrease in co-ordination and concentration. Psychological sequelae include depression and irritability.

Some features of RED-S may be lead to irreversible health issues in the future, as seen in the case of athletic hypothalamic amenorrhoea in female athletes with permanent loss of BMD. In both male and female athletes low energy density diet relative to energy expenditure with training results in low levels of insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and sex steroid hormones which impair not only sport performance but bone microarchitecture and mineralisation. Although hypothalamic suppression in females is manifest by lack of menstruation, there is no such obvious clinical sign in males, who may nevertheless also be experiencing suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. It has been shown that oestradiol is the key sex steroid hormone in promoting bone mineralisation: for both male and female. In males testosterone is aromatised to oestradiol which in turn acts on bone. As the same mechanisms are involved in the aetiology and effects of RED-S, then the long term consequences will most likely be the same for both female and male athletes.

In my next blog I will explore the consequences of RED-S in young athletes and delve into the Endocrine mechanisms involved in the aetiology and multi-system outcomes for male and female athletes of all ages.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Optimal health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones Dr N.Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Keay N, Fogelman I, Blake G. Bone mineral density in professional female dancers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol 31 no2, 143-7, June 1997.

From population based norms to personalised medicine: Health, Fitness, Sports Performance Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Relative Energy Deficiency in sport (REDs) Lecture by Professor Jorum Sundgot-Borgen, IOC working group on female athlete triad and IOC working group on body composition, health and performance. BAEM Spring Conference 2015.

Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, Carter S, Constantini N, Lebrun C, Meyer N, Sherman R, Steffen K, Budgett R, Ljungqvist A. The IOC consensus statement: beyond the Female Athlete Triad-Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S).Br J Sports Med. 2014 Apr;48(7):491-7.

Margo Mountjoy, IOC Medical Commission Games Group. Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport. Aspetar Sports Medicine Journal.

From population based norms to personalised medicine: Health, Fitness, Sports Performance

28 December 2016

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“Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. World Health Organisation 1948

There has been criticism of this definition, arguing that the word “complete” has opened the door to today’s more medicalised society. However, this trend coincides with increased volume of “patients” seeking optimal health, together with doctors who have a more extensive repertoire of medical interventions at their disposal. In a time-pressed society there is less opportunity for either patient or doctor to explore longer term adaptive measures and prevention strategies, which facilitate taking responsibility for your health. Fortunately Sport and Exercise Medicine became a recognised medical specialty in the UK in 2006. This encompasses population-based strategies for disease prevention outlined in the global initiative founded in 2007 “Exercise is Medicine“.

What has this got to do with sports performance? There are subgroups within the population, such as athletes already taking plenty of exercise. Elite athletes differ from the general population, due to superior adaptation processes to exercise, probably with a genetic component. So are the same “normal” population-based ranges of quantified medical parameters applicable?

This is precisely the issue that arose when I was on the international medical research team investigating the development of a dope test for growth hormone (GH). Crucially, exercise is one of the major stimuli for growth hormone release from the anterior pituitary. So before we could even start investigating potential downstream markers of exogenous GH abuse, the “normal” range for elite athletes had to be established.

In a similar way, are the “normal” ranges for other hormones applicable to athletes? In a fascinating lecture delivered by Dr Kristien Boelaert, Consultant Endocrinologist, it was explained that the distribution for thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) is affected by multiple factors, including illness, age and exercise status. So “normal” for the general population is not necessarily normal for specific subgroups.

The other issue, especially with the Endocrine system is that hormones act on a variety of tissues and so produce a variety of multi-system network effects with interactions and control feedback loops. Therefore symptoms of malfunction/maladaptation and subclinical conditions can be non specific. From a doctor’s perspective this makes Endocrinology fascinating detective work, but challenging when dealing with subgroups in the population who require a more intensive work-up and individualised approach.

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The vast majority of research studies involve exclusively male athletes, leaving female athletes under-represented (a recent study on heat adaptation in female athletes being a notable exception). Some areas of research, including my own, have been directed more towards female athletes in the case of female athlete triad, or Relative Energy Deficiency in sports (REDs). REDs is a more appropriate term as it really sums up the important points: male and female can both be affected and therefore should both be studied. There are subgroups within the general population who may not fit the “normal” range: REDs is not necessarily a clinically defined eating disorder from lecture by Professor J. Sundgot-Borgen (IOC working group on female athlete triad and IOC working group on body composition, health and performance).

No medical/physiological/metabolic parameter can be considered in isolation: in the case of REDs, it is not menstrual disturbance and bone health that are affected in isolation. For example, there is currently great debate about whether a low carbohydrate/high fat diet (ketogenic diet) can mobilise fat oxidation and potentially be a training strategy to enhance performance. Needless to say that a recent study contained no female athletes. Given that many female endurance athletes are already lean, potentially driving fat metabolism through diet manipulation may have an impact on Endocrine function, optimal health and hence sport performance. I understand that a forthcoming study will include female athletes.

So a continuum or distinct subgroups in the population? Clearly general medical principles apply to all, with a spectrum from optimal functioning, subclinical conditions through to recognised disease state. We now have evidence of distinct differences between subgroups in the population and even within these subgroups such as male and female athletes. We are moving into a world of personalised medicine, where recommendations for optimal health are tailored for individuals within specific subgroups.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

How should we define health?

Nobody is average but what to do about it? The challenge of individualized disease prevention based on genomics

Exercise is Medicine

Enhancing Sport Performance: part 1

Keay N, Logobardi S, Ehrnborg C, Cittadini A, Rosen T, Healy ML, Dall R, Bassett E, Pentecost C, Powrie J, Boroujerdi M, Jorgensen JOL, Sacca L. Growth hormone (GH) effects on bone and collagen turnover in healthy adults and its potential as a marker of GH abuse in sport: a double blind, placebo controlled study. Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 85 (4) 1505-1512. 2000.

Wallace J, Cuneo R, Keay N, Sonksen P. Responses of markers of bone and collagen turover to exercise, growth hormone (GH) administration and GH withdrawal in trained adult males. Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2000. 85 (1): 124-33.

Wallace J, Cuneo R, Baxter R, Orskov H, Keay N, Sonksen P. Responses of the growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like factor axis to exercise,GH administration and GH withdrawal in trained adult males: a potential test for GH abuse in sport. Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 1999. 84 (10): 3591-601.

Keay N, Logobardi S, Ehrnborg C, Cittadini A, Rosen T, Healy ML, Dall R, Bassett E, Pentecost C, Powrie J, Boroujerdi M, Jorgensen JOL, Sacca L. Growth hormone (GH) effects on bone and collagen turnover in healthy adults and its potential usefulness as in the detection of GH abuse in sport: a double blind, placebo controlled study. Endocrine Society Conference 1999.

Wallace J, Cuneo R, Keay N. Bone markers and growth hormone abuse in athletes. Growth hormone and IGF Research, vol 8: 4: 348.

Cuneo R, Wallace J, Keay N. Use of bone markers to detect growth hormone abuse in sport. Proceedings of Annual Scientific Meeting, Endocrine Society of Australia. August 1998, vol 41, p55.

Subclinical hypothydroidism in athletes. Lecture by Dr Kristeien Boelaert at BASEM Spring Conference 2014 on the Fatigued Athlete

Optimal health: especially young athletes! Part 3 Consequences of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports Dr N.Keay, British Association Sport and exercise Medicine

Optimal health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Relative Energy Deficiency in sport (REDs) Lecture by Professor Jorum Sundgot-Borgen, BAEM Spring Conference 2015 on the Female Athlete

Effect of adaptive responses to heat exposure on exercise performance

Low Carbohydrate, High Fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers