athlete – Dr Nicky Keay

Synergistic Interactions of Steroid Hormones

20 April 2018

The action of the sun on skin is the most effective way of making vitamin D. However, even walking around outside naked for 5 hours every day during UK winter months is not sufficient to make adequate vitamin D. Therefore, much to the relief of the audience at the recent BASEM Spring conference, this was not a strategy recommended by Dr Roger Wolman.

Vitamin D is a fat soluble steroid hormone. The majority of which is synthesised in the skin when exposed to ultraviolet B in sunlight, with a small contribution from dietary sources: this vitamin D3 molecule is then hydroxylated twice in the liver and then kidney to produce the metabolically active form of vitamin D. This activated steroid hormone binds to vitamin D receptors in various tissues to exert its influence on gene expression in these cells. The mono hydroxylated form of vitamin D is measured in the serum, as this has a long half life.

Does it matter having low levels of circulating vitamin D during winter months? What are the solutions if moving to warmer climates during the winter is (unfortunately) not feasible? What are the other hormones interact with vitamin D?

What are the beneficial effects of vitamin D, particularly in the athletic population?

Bone

Rickets and osteomalacia are conditions where vitamin D deficiency results in bone deformities and radiographic appearances are characterised by Looser zones, which in some ways are similar in appearance to stress fractures.

In a large prospective study of physically active adolescent girls, stress fracture incidence was found to have an inverse relationship with serum vitamin D concentrations. In adult female Navy recruits monitored during an 8 week training programme, those on vitamin D supplementation had a 20% reduction in stress fracture. However, oestrogen status was a more powerful risk factor at 91% in those recruits reporting amenorrhoea. Vitamin D is, itself, is a steroid hormone with range of systemic effects. As will be discussed below, its interaction with the sex steroid oestrogen has an important effect on bone turnover.

Immunity

Although sanatoriums, for those suffering with tuberculosis, were based on providing patients with fresh air, any beneficial effect was probably more due to vitamin D levels being boosted by exposure to sunlight. Certainly there are studies demonstrating the inhibitory effect of vitamin D on on slow growing mycobacteria, responsible for TB. What about the influence of vitamin D on other types of infection? In a recent publication, evidence was presented that supplementation with vitamin D prevented acute respiratory tract infections. This effect was marked in those with pre-existing low levels of vitamin D. In a study of athletes a concentration of 95 nmol/L was noted at the cut off point associated with more or less than one episode of illness. In another randomised controlled study of athletes, those supplemented with 5,000IU per day of vitamin D3 during winter displayed higher levels of serum vitamin D and had increased secretion of salivary IgA, which could improve immunity to respiratory infections.

Muscle

There is evidence that supplementing vitamin D3 at 4,000IU per day has a positive effect on skeletal muscle recovery in terms of repair and remodelling following a bout of eccentric exercise. In the longer term, dancers supplemented with 2,000IU over 4 months reported not only reduction in soft tissue injury, but an increase in quadriceps isometric strength of 18% and an increase of 7% in vertical jump height.

Synergistic actions of steroid hormones

No hormone can be considered in isolation. This is true for the network interaction effects between the steroid hormones vitamin D and oestrogen. In a study of professional dancers, there was found to be significant differences in serum vitamin D concentrations in dancers from winter to summer and associated reciprocal relationship with parathyroid hormone (PTH). In situations of vitamin D deficiency this can invoke secondary hypoparathyroidism. Although low levels of vitamin D were observed in the dancers, this was not a level to produce this condition. However, there was an increase in soft tissue injury during the winter months that could, in part, be linked to low vitamin D levels impacting muscle strength.

The novel finding of this study was that female dancers on the combined oral contraceptive pill (OCP) showed significant differences, relative to their eumenorrhoeic counterparts not on the OCP, in terms of higher levels of vitamin D and associated reductions of bone resorption markers and PTH. The potential mechanism could be the induction by the OCP of liver enzymes to increase binding proteins that alter the proportion of bound/bioactive vitamin D.

This interaction between steroid hormones oestrogen and vitamin D could be particularly significant in those in low oestrogen states such as postmenpoausal women and premenarchal girls. Menarche can be delayed in athletes, so is there a case for vitamin D supplementation in young non-menstruating athletes? What is the situation for men? Do testosterone and vitamin D have similar interactions and therefore implications for male athletes with RED-S, where testosterone can be low?

Vitamin D is not simply a vitamin. It is a steroid hormone with multi-system effects and interactions with other steroid hormones, such as sex steroids, which are of particular relevance to athletes.

References

BASEM Spring Conference 2018 “Health, Hormones and Human Performance”

BASEM Spring Conference 2018 Part 2 “Health, Hormones and Human Performance”

Calcium and Vitamin D Supplementation Decreases Incidence of Stress Fractures in Female Navy Recruits JBMR 2009

Vitamin D, Calcium, and Dairy Intakes and Stress Fractures Among Female Adolescents Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012

A Single Dose of Vitamin D Enhances Immunity to Mycobacteria American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2007

Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data BMJ 2017

Influence of vitamin D status on respiratory infection incidence and immune function during 4 months of winter training in endurance sport athletes Exerc Immunol Rev. 2013

The effect of 14 weeks of vitamin D3 supplementation on antimicrobial peptides and proteins in athletes J Sports Sci. 2016

A systems-based investigation into vitamin D and skeletal muscle repair, regeneration, and hypertrophy American Journal of Physiology 2015

The influence of winter vitamin D supplementation on muscle function and injury occurrence in elite ballet dancers: A controlled study Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 2014

Vitamin D status in professional ballet dancers: Winter vs. summer J Science and Medicine in Sport 2013

Male Cyclists: Bones, Body composition, Nutrition, Performance

7 January 2018

Screen Shot 2018-01-02 at 10.42.17

There has been much recent coverage regarding female runners suffering with health and performance issues due to relative energy deficiency in sports (RED-S). What about male athletes? A recent article about male cyclists who explained how they developed RED-S, did not receive as sympathetic a response as articles concerning female athletes. Yet multiple Endocrine network disruption in RED-S, associated with suboptimal health and performance, is equally applicable to male and female athletes.

Although competitive road cycling is excellent for cardiovascular (CV) fitness, why are male cyclists at particular risk of impaired bone health and RED-S? Cycling is a non-weight bearing type of exercise, as is swimming, so does not provide much osteogenic (bone building) stimulus. The additional element in road cycling is that, in the short term, low body weight, with associated low body fat, confers a performance advantage. However this can lead to restrictive nutrition and RED-S, that have adverse effects on health and performance, over the longer term.

A recent study looking at bone acquisition in adolescent males found that bone mass, microarchitecture and makers of bone formation were more favourable in footballers compared with cyclists and swimmers. Swimmers had the lowest Vitamin D, presumably as this is generally an indoor sport (unless you live in Australia where outdoor 50m pools abound). Another study found reduction in femoral neck bone mineral accumulation in adolescent male cyclists compared against increases over the same time frame seen in controls.

What about adult male road cyclists? When runners and cyclists were matched for age and body weight, there were no significant differences in hormone or nutrition status, yet cyclists were 7 times more likely to have osteopenia of the lumbar spine than runners. Similar results were found in another study where competitive male road cyclists were found to have reduced lumbar spine bone mineral density (BMD) for age, despite normal levels of testosterone and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), although intriguingly an inverse correlation with lumbar spine BMD and IGF1 was found. It appears that the biomechanical stress patterns on the spine in cycling are not oesteogenic in nature, which contrasts with rowing where, although also seated, the biomechanical load exerted through the spine does provide an osteogenic effect.

In addition to the non-load bearing nature of cycling on the skeleton, restrictive nutrition can contribute to suboptimal bone health. Reducing energy availability by restricting energy intake whilst increasing training load can be a strategy, especially during pre-season training to reduce body weight and body fat. Essentially, cycling up a steep incline demands less power through the pedals if your body weight is low. Nevertheless, reducing energy availability runs the risk of developing RED-S, associated Endocrine dysfunction and suboptimal bone health, on top of the non-beneficial mechanical osteogenic effect of cycling. On a practical note, with long training rides in the saddle it can be physically and practically difficult to fuel optimally. Recent research in female athletes shows that within day energy deficits magnify hormonal disruption. Could this be a factor in male cyclists where consistent fuelling is either actively avoided and/or practically difficult?

The psychological element of disordered eating has been described amongst elite male cyclists. Male cyclists, in particular, collect many metrics associated with training and racing which could be a manifestation of a drive to perfectionism. Determination and attention to detail are laudable qualities for athletes, but there is a fine line when the balance swings to behaviours and attitudes that can be detrimental to health and performance. Even starting off with good intentions can lead to problems as seen with the growing emergence of orthorexia: “clean eating”, which, ironically, becomes detrimental to health and performance with exclusion of food groups such as carbohydrates.

Exclusively practising a non weight bearing sport such as cycling although great for CV fitness, is not so good for bone health. Does this matter? Potentially injury is more likely in bike spills, which occur both in training and competition even for the most experienced bike handler. Combined with the drive for low body weight in competitive road cycling, health and performance issues can be compounded with RED-S. What are the solutions for the cyclist to support favourable body composition and bone health, which ultimately also optimises performance? A further planned study, following a current pilot study of competitive road cyclists, aims to investigate the potential beneficial effects of strength and conditioning to load the skeleton combined with a review of nutrition. See details of next study to see if you wish to participate.

For more discussion on the Endocrine aspects of Sports and Exercise Science and Medicine, BASEM Spring conference 22 March

References

Cumulative Endocrine Dysfunction in Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S)

Too healthy to ride? How clean living could slow you down Cycling Weekly 2017

Body Composition for Health and Sports Performance

Longitudinal Adaptations of Bone Mass, Geometry, and Metabolism in Adolescent Male Athletes: The PRO-BONE Study JBMR 2017

Participation in road cycling vs running is associated with lower bone mineral density in men Metabolism 2008

Evaluation of the Bone Status in High-Level Cyclists Journal of Clinical Densitometry 2012

Effect of exercise training programme on bone mineral density in novice college rowers BJSM 1995

Energy Intake and Energy Expenditure of Elite Cyclists During Preseason Training Int J Sports Med 2005
Kings and Queens of the Mountains Science4Performance 2017

Cumulative Endocrine Dysfunction in Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S)

Perfectionism and Risk for Disordered Eating among Young French Male Cyclists of High Performance Perceptual and Motor Skills 2004

Kings and Queens of the Mountains Science4Performance 2017

Addiction to Exercise – what distinguishes a healthy level of commitment from exercise addiction? BJSM 2017

Optimal Health: For All Athletes! Part 4 – Mechanisms BASEM 2017

Cumulative Endocrine Dysfunction in Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S)

31 December 2017

Screen Shot 2017-12-24 at 22.35.18

Unfortunately I continue to see athletes, both male and female, whose health and athletic performance is hampered due to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sports (RED-S). There have been some high profile athletes who have been very open about how RED-S has affected them, alerting younger athletes to potential pitfalls.

Does this issue warrant highlighting? Yes! The athletes I see and those that speak out are only just the tip of the iceberg. In a study of exercising females, half were found to have subtle menstrual hormone disruption such as luteal phase deficit or anovulation. A third were amenorrhoeic, with no periods at all. All women of reproductive age, whether an athlete or not, should have regular periods, otherwise there are potential serious health and performance sequaelae. However studies in both the USA and Australia have revealed that the majority of young exercising women are not aware of the link between menstrual disruption and deleterious, potentially irreversible effects on bone health.

The impact of non-integrated periodisation of training, nutrition and recovery has evolved since the early description of the female athlete triad. The constellation of amenorrhoea, disordered eating and osteoporosis is now considered to be a clinical spectrum. In turn the female athlete triad is part of a much broader picture of RED-S, which includes adverse multi-system effects beyond bone health and is also seen in male athletes.

Although an athlete may appear healthy, what are the underlying Endocrine disruptions occurring in RED-S that ultimately will impede both optimal health and performance to full potential? In general, female exercisers are more susceptible to internal and external perturbations as the female Endocrine system is more finely balanced than in males. Nevertheless, in a study of male athletes, in the short time period after completing a training session, bone turnover was adversely affected, with an increase in markers of resorption relative to formation, if an athlete did not refuel rapidly with protein and carbohydrate. In the now classic research by Loucks, 5 days of manipulated energy restricted availability, via dietary intake and exercise output, caused disruption in LH pulsatility in previously eumenorrhoeic women. From this research and subsequent studies, not only is the reproductive axis disrupted with reduced energy availability, in addition hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (decreased T3) and adrenal axes (increased cortisol) and decreased IGF1 due to relative GH resistance are all disrupted. These interactive hormonal dysfunctions occur even before reduction in sex steroids. A recent study demonstrated that beyond the average energy availability over a 24 hour time window, within day energy deficits in terms of duration and magnitude are associated with a greater degree of disruption of Endocrine and metabolic markers, in particular decreased oestradiol and increased cortisol. So consistency of nutrition, not only during a training season but from day to day is vital.

Although energy availability is the crucial factor in the pathophysiology of RED-S, measuring this is not practical for all athletes in terms of accuracy and cost. Clinical menstrual status in female athletes and basic Endocrine markers are proposed as being more reliable and accessible. The Endocrine system is very sensitive to internal and external perturbations, as described above, and presages performance consequences of RED-S, such as injury. An important starting point is for all female athletes is to ask themselves: are my periods regular? This is also a vital question that coaches and parents need to consider for athletes in their care. If the answer is no, then this needs to be assessed, ideally by those with experience in Sports Endocrinology.

Why are these clinical and biochemical markers of Endocrine dysfunction important for athletes? Essentially there are significant health and performance implications for athletes. As outlined in the stories of female athletes, by the time career limiting stress fractures become obvious, typically in early twenties, the Endocrine system has been in disarray for a significant time. Long term, irreversible poor bone health and adverse body composition have been established.

In my opinion, emphasis should be placed on the positive outcome of integrating periodised training, nutrition and recovery to support a functional Endocrine system and therefore optimal health and ability to reach full athletic potential. For example for female athletes, competing in sports where low body mass confers a performance advantage, such as ballet, gymnastics and road cycling, finely tuned neuromuscular skills are essential to reach maximal potential and minimise injury risk. Yet these are the athletes most at risk of developing RED-S, with consequential adverse effects on menstrual cycles, endogenous oestrogen secretion and neuromuscular function.

Rather than reading headlines about the concerning health issues amongst athletes, more guidance for athletes and those working with them, on the warning signs and how to combat RED-S are needed so that athletes can reach their full potential and the headlines become about athlete achievements.

For more discussion on the Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of Sport and Exercise Medicine, all members of multi-disciplinary team working with athletes, including athletes and coaches are welcome to the BASEM Spring Conference

BAsem2018_SpringConf_BJSM

References

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sports (RED-S) Practical considerations for endurance athletes

British middle-distance runner Bobby Clay is struggling with osteoporosis but wants her experience to act as a lesson for fellow young athletes Athletics Weekly 2017

In a special AW report, former English Schools champion Jen Walsh reveals the devastation that the female athlete triad can wreak Athletics Weekly 2017

Optimal Health: Especially Young Athletes! Part 3 – Consequences of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sports BASEM 2017

Prevalence High prevalence of subtle and severe menstrual disturbances in exercising women: confirmation using daily hormone measures. Human Repro 2010

Energy deficiency, menstrual disturbances, and low bone mass: what do exercising Australian women know about the female athlete triad? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012

Female adolescent athletes’ awareness of the connection between menstrual status and bone health J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2011

Optimal health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones BJSM 2017

Optimal Health: For All Athletes! Part 4 – Mechanisms BASEM 2017

Sports Endocrinology – what does it have to do with performance? BJSM 2017

The Effect of Postexercise Carbohydrate and Protein Ingestion on Bone Metabolism Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine 2017

Luteinizing hormone pulsatility is disrupted at a threshold of energy availability in regularly menstruating women JCEM 2003

Within-day energy deficiency and reproductive function in female endurance athletes Scandinavian Journal of Science and medicine in Sports 2017

Low Energy Availability is Difficult to Assess But Outcomes Have Large Impact on Bone Injury Rates in Elite Distance Athletes Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 2017

Body Composition for Health and Sports Performance

Reduced Neuromuscular Performance in Amenorrheic Elite Endurance Athletes Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2017

Conferences in Sport/Dance, Exercise Science and Medicine 2018

12 December 2017

Conferences for the New Year:

BAsem2018_SpringConf_BJSM

If you are interested in any aspects of Sport/Dance, Exercise and Lifestyle Medicine here are some suggestions:

British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine Spring Conference 22 March 2018 “Health, Hormones and Human Performance” Covering the Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of Sport, Dance, Exercise Science and Medicine. From the elite athlete to the reluctant exerciser. Aimed at all those members of the multidisciplinary team working with athletes/dancers, plus athletes/dancers and their coaches/teachers.

CPD points awarded from Faculty of Sports and Exercise Medicine FSEM

BASES British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences CPD awarded

British Journal of Sports Medicine Quality International Education Approved

CPD points from Royal College of Physicians

CPD from REP-S

FSEM_CPD_Award Screen Shot 2017-12-12 at 14.47.15 fullsizeoutput_2b2 fullsizeoutput_2b6

Why? The balance and timing of exercise, nutrition and recovery is key to optimising health and all aspects of human performance. Intricate network interactions between the Endocrine system and metabolic signalling pathways drive these positive adaptations. However, non-integration of these lifestyle factors can disrupt signalling feedback pathways and predispose to maladaptation and potentially disease states.

What? Discussion, led by experienced clinicians and researchers will cover:

· Key role of Sports Endocrinology in health and performance

· Effects of exercise modalities on body composition and bone health

· Machine learning in interpreting biochemical & metabolomic patterns

· Endocrine & metabolic markers in assessing health & training status

· Gut metabolism in supporting health and performance

· Exercise as crucial lifestyle factor in pre-existing metabolic dysfunction

Who? This conference is relevant to all members of multidisciplinary teams supporting both reluctant exercisers and elite athletes. Medics, researchers, physiologists, physiotherapists, nutritionists, psychologists, coaches, athletes. All welcome.

Health, Hormones and Human Performance will be a conference of interest to all those involved with aspiring and elite athletes, including dancers (National Institute of Dance Medicine and Science NIDMS) and those supporting reluctant exercisers through Lifestyle Medicine.

Latest news from BASEM. Interview with BASEM Today Issue 41 – Winter 2017

Wales Exercise Medicine Symposium by Cardiff Sports & Exercise Medicine Society 27/1/18. This includes Dr Peter Brukner, founder of the Olympic Sports Medicine Park in Melbourne, and an afternoon session discussing the female athlete through the lifespan. CPD points applied for from the Royal College of Physicians, the Faculty of Sports and Exercise Medicine, REPs and the Royal College Of General Practitioners.

fullsizeoutput_290

Women in Sport and Exercise Conference 2018 13-14 June Organised by The Women in Sport and Exercise Academic Network and attracting British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) CPD points.

fullsizeoutput_293

Temporal considerations in Endocrine/Metabolic interactions Part 1

1 August 2017

It is not a simple question of what, but when we eat, sleep and exercise.

The Endocrine system displays temporal variation in release of hormones. Integrating external lifestyle factors with this internal, intrinsic temporal dimension is crucial for supporting metabolic and Endocrine health.

Amplitude and frequency of hormonal secretion display a variety of temporal patterns:

Diurnal variation, synchronised with external light/dark. Orchestrated by a specific area of the hypothalamus, the neuroendocrine gatekeeper.
Circadian rhythm, roughly 24-25 hours which can vary with season according to duration of release of melatonin from the pineal gland.
Infradian rhythms longer than a day, for example lunar month seen in patterns of hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis hormone release during the menstrual cycle.
Further changes in these temporal release and feedback patterns occur over a longer timescale during the lifespan.

Hormones influence gene expression and hence protein synthesis over varying timescales outlined above. The control system for hormone release is based on interactive feedback loops. The hypothalamus is the neuroendocrine gatekeeper, which integrates external inputs and internal feedback. The net result is to maintain intrinsic biological clocks, whilst orchestrating adaptations to internal perturbations stimulated by external factors such as sleep pattern, nutrition and exercise.

Circadian alignment refers to consistent temporal patterns of sleep, nutrition and physical activity. Circadian misalignment affects sleep-architecture and subsequently disturbs the interaction of metabolic and Endocrine health. This includes gut-peptides, glucose-insulin interaction, substrate oxidation, leptin & ghrelin concentrations and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal/gonadal-axes. The main stimuli for growth hormone release are sleep and exercise. Growth hormone is essential for supporting favourable body composition. These integrated patterns of environmental factors may have a more pronounced effect on those with a genetic predisposition or during crucial stages of lifespan. For example curtailed sleep during puberty can impact epigenetic factors such as telomere length and thus may predispose to metabolic disruption in later life. Regarding activity levels, there are strong relationships between time spent looking at screens and markers, such as insulin resistance, for risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus in children aged 9 to 10 years.

In addition to adverse metabolic effects set in motion by circadian misalignment, bone turnover has also shown to be impacted. Circadian disruption in young men resulted in uncoupling of bone turnover, with decreased formation and unchanged bone resorption as shown by monitoring bone markers. In other words a net negative effect on bone health, which was most pronounced in younger adult males compared with their older counterparts. These examples underline the importance of taking into account changes in endogenous temporal patterns during the lifespan and hence differing responses to external lifestyle changes.

For male and female athletes, integrated periodised training, nutrition and recovery has to be carefully planned over training seasons to support optimal adaptations in Endocrine and metabolic networks to improve performance. Training plans that do not balance these all these elements can result in underperformance, potentially relative energy deficiency in sport and consequences for health in both short and long term.

Part 2 will consider the longer term consequences and interactions of these temporal patterns of lifestyle factors, including seasonal training patterns in male and female athletes, on the intrinsic biochronometry controlling the Endocrine and metabolic networks during lifespan.

For further discussion on Health, Hormones and Human Performance, come to the BASEM annual conference

References

Sports Endocrinology – what does it have to do with performance? Dr N.Keay, British Journal of Sports Medicine 2017

One road to Rome: Metabolic Syndrome, Athletes, Exercise Dr N. Keay

Metabolic and Endocrine System Networks Dr N. Keay

Endocrine system: balance and interplay in response to exercise training Dr N.Keay

Sleep for health and sports performance Dr N.Keay, British Journal of Sports Medicine 2017

Factors Impacting Bone Development Dr N. Keay

Sleep, circadian rhythm and body weight: parallel developments Proc Nutr Soc

Sleep Duration and Telomere Length in Children Journal of Paediatrics 2017

Screen time is associated with adiposity and insulin resistance in children Archives of Disease in Childhood

Circadian disruption may lead to bone loss in healthy men Endocrine today 2017

Successful Ageing Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Clusters of Athletes – A follow on from RED-S blog series to put forward impact of RED-S on athlete underperformance Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Optimal Health: For All Athletes! Part 4 – Mechanisms Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

One road to Rome: Metabolic Syndrome, Athletes, Exercise

20 July 2017

One road to Rome

Metabolic syndrome comprises a cluster of symptoms including: hypertension, dyslipidaemia, fatty liver disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

The underlying pathological process is insulin resistance which distorts metabolism. Temporal and mechanistic connections have been described between hyperinsulinaemia, obesity and insulin resistance. Insulin levels rise, potentially stimulated by excess intake of refined carbohydrates and in addition the metabolic actions of insulin are attenuated on target tissues such as the liver, skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. At a cellular level, inflammatory changes play a part in this metabolic dis-regulation. Mitochondrial action in skeletal muscle is impaired, compromising the ability to oxidise fat as a substrate, thus resulting in muscle glycolysis and a consequent rise in blood lactate.

Although much attention has been focused on restricting calories and treating elevated lipids with medication (statins), evidence is now emerging that this does not have the anticipated effect of reducing mortality from cardiovascular disease. In addition, it has been proposed that the gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in metabolism, inflammation and immunity.

Metabolic syndrome usually conjures an image of an overweight person with or on the verge of developing T2DM. However there is an interesting group of slim people who are also are at risk of developing metabolic syndrome due to insulin resistance. The majority of women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) present with menstrual disturbance of some description. However not all display the textbook characteristics of Stein-Leventhal syndrome (overweight, hirsute and with skin problems). There is in fact of spectrum of clinical phenotypes ranging from the overweight to the slim. In all phenotypes of PCOS, the crucial uniting underlying metabolic disturbance is insulin resistance. The degree of insulin resistance has been shown to be related to adverse body composition with increased ratio of whole body fat to lean mass.

Although this confuses the picture somewhat, it also simplifies the approach. In all cases the single most important lifestyle modification is exercise.

Exercise improves metabolic flexibility: the ability to adapt substrate oxidation to substrate availability. Endurance exercise training amongst athletes results in improved fat oxidation and right shift of the lactate tolerance curve. Conversely metabolic inflexibility associated with inactivity is implicated in the development of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome.

What about nutritional strategies that might improve metabolic flexibility? Ketogenic diets can either be endogenous (carbohydrate restricted intake) or exogenous (ingestion of ketone esters and carbohydrate). Low carbohydrate/high fat diets (terms often used interchangeably with all types of ketogenic diets) have been shown to improve fat oxidation and potentially mitigate cognitive decline in older people.

However, in the case of athletes, the benefits do not necessarily translate to better performance. Despite reports of such diets enhancing fat oxidation and favourable changes in body composition, a recent study demonstrates that this, in isolation, does not translate into improved sport performance. A possible explanation is the oxygen demand of increased oxidation of fat needs to be supported by a higher oxygen supply. The intermediate group of endurance athletes in this study, on the periodised carbohydrate intake, fared better in performance terms. Another recent study confirmed that a ketogenic diet failed to improve the performance of endurance athletes, in spite of improving fat metabolism and body composition. Despite small numbers, this warrants particular mention as the majority of participants were women, who are in general very underrepresented in scientific studies.

In all likelihood, the reason that these type of diets (ketogenic, high fat/low carb: not always well defined!) did not improve sport performance is that only one aspect of metabolism was impacted and quantified. Although fat oxidation, modified via dietary interventions, is certainly an important component of metabolism, the impact on the interactive network effects of the Endocrine system should be evaluated in the broader context of circadian rhythm. For athletes this goes further, to include integrated periodisation of nutrition, training and recovery to optimise performance, throughout the year.

In addition to dietary interventions, medical researchers continue to explore the use of exercise mimetics and metabolic modulators, to address metabolic syndrome. Unfortunately, some have sought their use as a short cut to improved sport performance. Many of these substances appear on the WADA banned list for athletes. However the bottom line is that it is impossible to mimic, either through a dietary or pharmacological intervention, the multi-system, integrated interplay between exercise, metabolism and the Endocrine system.

Only one road to Rome!

Whatever your current level of activity, whether reluctant exerciser or athlete, the path is the same to improve health and performance. This route is exercise, supported with periodised nutrition and recovery. Exercise will automatically set in motion the interactive responses and adaptations of your metabolic and Endocrine systems.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Insulin action and resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes Nature Medicine 2017

Inflammation: Why and How Much? Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine

The cholesterol and calorie hypotheses are both dead — it is time to focus on the real culprit: insulin resistance Clinical Pharmacist 2017

Skeletal muscle mitochondria as a target to prevent or treat type 2 diabetes mellitus Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2016

The essential role of exercise in the management of type 2 diabetes Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 2017

β cell function and insulin resistance in lean cases with polycystic ovary syndrome Gynecol Endocrinol. 2017

The many faces of polycystic ovary syndrome in Endocrinology. Conference Royal Society of Medicine 2017

Association of fat to lean mass ratio with metabolic dysfunction in women with polycystic ovary syndrome Hum Reprod 2014

Sedentary behaviour is a key determinant of metabolic inflexibility Journal of physiology 2017

International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017

A cross-sectional comparison of brain glucose and ketone metabolism in cognitively healthy older adults, mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer’s disease Exp Gerontol. 2017

Low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers J Physiol. 2017

Ketogenic diet benefits body composition and well-being but not performance in a pilot case study of New Zealand endurance athletes J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017

Sports Endocrinology – what does it have to do with performance? Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sports Medicine 2017

Hormones and Sports Performance

Endocrine system: balance and interplay in response to exercise training

Hormones and Sports Performance

15 July 2017

WADA

The interactive network effects of the Endocrine system are key in producing effective adaptations to exercise. This in turn results in improved sport performance. Athletes are aware of the crucial role of the Endocrine system in sports performance. Therefore it is not surprising that, on the World Anti-Doping agency (WADA) banned list, the majority of prohibited substances both in and out of competition are hormones, mimetics and hormone and metabolic modulators. In 2013 hormones accounted for 75% of all adverse analytical findings. Use of such substances to enhance performance is not only illegal and against the spirit of sport, but also potentially harmful to the health of the athlete.

Considering some of these prohibited hormones, the usual suspects start with anabolic agents: anabolic androgenic steroids whether these be synthetic derivatives taken exogenously or molecular identical endogenous steroids, including metabolites and isomers, administered exogenously. In a study recently published in the BJSM, female athletes with free testosterone levels in the highest tertile displayed better performance than those in lowest tertile of up to 4.5% in certain power/anaerobic events such as 400m, 800m, hammer and pole jump. This may be due to associated body composition with increased lean mass and “risk taking” behaviour. In 2015, the Court of Arbitration for Sport ruled that the IAAF should suspend the existing upper limit on female athlete testosterone, of 10nmol/l, because at the time there was insufficient evidence that such levels would improve performance in female athletes. In view of the results of this study, the situation may have to be reviewed. This is clearly an ethical dilemma regarding intersex athletes, whose hyerandrogenism is due to endogenous biological factors.

Next up there are peptide hormones/growth factors/mimetics. As previously discussed, growth hormone (GH) proved a challenging peptide hormone for which to develop a dope test. Firstly what are the “normal” ranges for elites athletes, seeing as exercise and sleep are the two major stimuli for GH release? Furthermore, elite athletes represent a subset of the population, for whom the normal range may differ. Secondly exogenous genetically engineered GH is to all intents and purposes identical to endogenous secreted GH, with a relatively short half life. Hence early on in development of a dope test we realised that downstream markers, particularly of bone turnover would have to be used. This brings the discussion to erythropoietin (EPO). In a similar way to GH and allied releasing factors, increases in key surrogate variables producing performance enhancement are measured. In the case of exogenous EPO these are changes in haemoglobin and haematocrit as recorded in an athletes’ biological passport. A recent study on amateur cyclists given EPO in a double blind randomised placebo controlled trial, reported no improvement in a submaximal field test. Although the effects in elite cyclists would arguably be more relevant, this is not possible for obvious ethical reasons. Nevertheless the effects on elite cyclists during maximal efforts, for example in an attack on a mountainous stage in the Tour de France, would not necessarily correlate to amateurs in submaximal conditions, where there may be other limiting factors to performance. In addition athletes may use supraphysiological dosing regimens (“stacking” or “pyramiding”), not necessarily comparable to those used in clinical studies. In my opinion, apart from potential ergogenic benefits, whatever the degree, the intention to “take a short cut” to improve performance is the issue, not to mention the adverse health sequelae, for example, the study noted a thrombotic tendency with EPO, even in modest doses.

Hormone and metabolic modulators have received attention following the fall from grace of Maria Sharapova. Meldonium which is licensed for use in Baltic countries has beneficial anti-ischaemic effects in cardiovascular, neurological and metabolic disease states. Apparently this drug was use amongst Soviet troops during the war in mountainous Afghanistan. Amongst athletes the intended purpose is to improve endurance exercise performance and recovery post exercise. This is an example where an unfortunate spin off from developing drugs to treat disease states, is that such drugs are also see by some athletes as a short cut to enhance sport performance.

Although thyroxine is not on the banned list, there are certainly arguments that exogenous thyroxine should not be given to athletes, unless there is definitive biochemical evidence that the athlete suffers with hypothyroidism: as defined by criteria for diagnosing this condition with consistently elevated thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) above the normal range, with paired low T4. Thyroid autoantibodies may also provide extra clinical information. The effect of intense training on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis is to slightly suppress both TSH and T4, whilst these remain in the normal range. In this instance medicating with exogenous thyroxine would be to support recovery from training, rather than to legitimately treat a proven medical condition. In a similar way a TUE is only justified for testosterone in pathological disorders of the hypothalamo-pituitary-testicular axis and not for suppressed testosterone as a result of training stress.

Unfortunately supplements are a source of preventable anti-doping rule violations (ADRV) representing up to half of the total ADRVs. Either such supplements have not listed all the contents, or contamination has occurred during manufacture. If an athlete wishes to take supplements, certainly it is advisable only to take reliably tested products. Nevertheless even if an athlete unintentionally ingests prohibited substances, then ultimately they are still liable. If claims of the benefits of such supplements sound too good to be true, they probably are. Ultimately supplements will not win races and there is no substitute for periodised training, nutrition and recovery.

Effectively there is an arms race between would-be doper and medical expertise in Sports Endocrinology. However, freezing samples for potential re-analysis with emerging understanding and technology in the future is an added deterrent for athletes whose intention is to take a short cut to improving sport performance.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Endocrine system: balance and interplay in response to exercise training

Sports Endocrinology – what does it have to do with performance? Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sports Medicine 2017

Enhancing Sport Performance: Part 1 Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Keay N, Logobardi S, Ehrnborg C, Cittadini A, Rosen T, Healy ML, Dall R, Bassett E, Pentecost C, Powrie J, Boroujerdi M, Jorgensen JOL, Sacca L. Growth hormone (GH) effects on bone and collagen turnover in healthy adults and its potential as a marker of GH abuse in sport: a double blind, placebo controlled study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 85 (4) 1505-1512. 2000.

From population based norms to personalised medicine: Health, Fitness, Sports Performance Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sports Medicine 2017

Enabling Sport Performance: part 2

Enhancing Sports Performance: part 3

World Anti-Doping Agency

Serum androgen levels and their relation to performance in track and field: mass spectrometry results from 2127 observations in male and female elite athletes British Journal of Sports Medicine

Doping Status of DHEA Treatment for Female Athletes with Adrenal Insufficiency Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine 2017

Testosterone treatment and risk of venous thromboembolism: population based case-control study British Medical Journal 2016

Effects of erythropoietin on cycling performance of well trained cyclists: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial The Lancet, Haematology 2017

Meldonium use by athletes at the Baku 2015 European Games. Adding data to Ms Maria Sharapova’s failed drug test case British Journal of Sports Medicine 2016

Fatigue, sport performance and hormones..more on the endocrine system Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sports Medicine 2017

Australian Sport Anti-Doping Authority

Addiction to Exercise

17 May 2017

ExerciseAddiction

Health is not just the absence of illness, but rather the optimisation of all components of health: physical, mental and social. Exercise has numerous benefits on all these aspects. However, a recent article in the British Medical Journal described how exercise addiction can have detrimental physical, mental and social effects.

Dedication and determination are valuable qualities required to be successful in life, including achieving sporting prowess. Yet, there is a fine line between dedication and addiction.

To improve sports performance, cumulative training load has to be increased in a quantified fashion, to produce an overload and hence the desired physiological and Endocrine adaptive responses. Integrated periodisation of training, recovery and nutrition is required to ensure effective adaptation. Sufficient energy availability and quality of nutrition are essential to support health and desired adaptations. On the graph above the solid blue line represents a situation of energy balance, where the demands of increased training load are matched by a corresponding rise in energy availability. This can be challenging in sports where low body weight confers a performance or aesthetic advantage, where the risk of developing relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) has implications for Endocrine dysfunction, impacting all aspects of health and sports performance.

Among those participating in high volumes of exercise, what distinguishes a healthy level of commitment from exercise addiction? Physical factors alone are insufficient: all those engaging in high levels of training can experience overuse injuries and disruption in Endocrine, metabolic and immune systems. Equally, in all these exercising individuals, overtraining can result in underperformance.

Psychological factors are the key distinguishing features between the motivated athlete and the exercise addict. In exercise addiction unhealthy motivators and emotional connection to exercise can be identified as risk factors. In exercise addiction the motivation to exercise is driven by the obsession to comply with an exercise schedule, above all else. This can result in negative effects and conflict in social interactions, as well as negative emotional manifestations, such as anxiety and irritability if unable to exercise, including the perceived necessity to exercise even if fatigued or injured.

Two categories of exercise addiction have been described. Primary exercise addiction is the compulsion to follow an excessive training schedule. Without balancing energy intake, the physical consequence may be a relative energy deficiency, as indicated on the graph by the dashed blue line. In secondary exercise addiction, the situation is compounded by a desire specifically to control body weight. These individuals consciously limit energy intake, almost inevitably developing the full clinical syndrome described in RED-S, dragging them down to the position indicated by the dotted blue line on the chart. These situations of exercise addiction can lead to varying risk categories of RED-S.

As described at the start of this blog, there is a blurred boundary between the dedicated athlete and the exercise addict. In practice there is most likely a cross over. For example, an athlete may start with healthy motivators and positive emotional connection to exercise, which can become a primary addiction to adhere rigidly to a training schedule, rather than putting the emphasis on the outcome of such training. In the case of an athlete where low body weight is an advantage, it is easy to appreciate how this could become a secondary exercise addiction, where the motivation for exercising becomes more driven by the desire to control weight, rather than performance.

In order to support those with exercise addiction, discussion needs to focus on adopting a more flexible approach to exercise, by recognising that exercise addiction has detrimental effects on all aspects of current and long term health. Furthermore, in the case of athletes, a multi-disciplinary approach is desirable to help the individual refocus on the primary objective of training: to improve performance. In all situations, discussion should explore modifications to exercise and nutrition, in order to prevent the negative effects of RED-S on health and performance.

Exercise has numerous health benefits and is usually viewed as positive behaviour. However, the outcome of exercise is related to the amount of training, appropriate nutrition and motivation for exercising.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Addiction to Exercise British Medical Journal 2017

Clusters of Athletes British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Sport performance and relative energy deficiency in sport British Journal of Sport Medicine 2017

Balance of recovery and adaptation for sports performance British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Optimal Health for all athletes Part 4 Mechanisms of RED-S British Journal of Sport Medicine 2017

Sports Endocrinology – what does it have to do with performance? British Journal of Sport Medicine 2017

Inflammation: Why and How Much? British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2017

Optimal health: for all athletes! Part 4 Mechanisms

17 January 2017

As described in previous blogs, the female athlete triad (disordered eating, amenorrhoea, low bone mineral density) is part of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports (RED-S). RED-S has multi-system effects and can affect both female and male athletes together with young athletes. The fundamental issue is a mismatch of energy availability and energy expenditure through exercise training. As described in previous blogs this situation leads to a range of adverse effects on both health and sports performance. I have tried to unravel the mechanisms involved. Please note the diagram below is simplified view: I have only included selected major neuroendocrine control systems.

REDs

Low energy availability is an example of a metabolic stressor. Other sources of stress in an athlete will be training load and possibly inadequate sleep. These physiological and psychological stressors input into the neuroendocrine system via the hypothalamus. Low plasma glucose concentrations stimulates release of glucagon and suppression of the antagonist hormone insulin from the pancreas. This causes mobilisation of glycogen stores and fat deposits. Feedback of this metabolic situation to the hypothalamus, in the short term is via low blood glucose and insulin levels and in longer term via low levels of leptin from reduced fat reserves.

A critical body weight and threshold body fat percentage was proposed as a requirement for menarche and subsequent regular menstruation by Rose Frisch in 1984. To explain the mechanism behind this observation, a peptide hormone leptin is secreted by adipose tissue which acts on the hypothalamus. Leptin is one of the hormones responsible for enabling the episodic, pulsatile release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) which is key in the onset of puberty, menarche in girls and subsequent menstrual cycles. In my 3 year longitudinal study of 87 pre and post-pubertal girls, those in the Ballet stream had lowest body fat and leptin levels associated with delayed menarche and low bone mineral density (BMD) compared to musical theatre and control girls. Other elements of body composition also play a part as athletes tend to have higher lean mass to fat mass ratio than non-active population and energy intake of 45 KCal/Kg lean mass is thought to be required for regular menstruation.

Suppression of GnRH pulsatility, results in low secretion rates of pituitary trophic factors LH and FSH which are responsible for regulation of sex steroid production by the gonads. In the case of females this manifests as menstrual disruption with associated anovulation resulting in low levels of oestradiol. In males this suppression of the hypothamlamic-pituitary-gonadal axis results in low testosterone production. In males testosterone is aromatised to oestradiol which acts on bone to stimulate bone mineralisation. Low energy availability is an independent factor of impaired bone health due to decreased insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) concentrations. Low body weight was found to be an independent predictor of BMD in my study of 57 retired pre-menopausal professional dancers. Hence low BMD is seen in both male and female athletes with RED-S. Low age matched BMD in athletes is of concern as this increases risk of stress fracture. In long term suboptimal BMD is irrecoverable even if normal function of hypothamlamic-pituitary-gonadal function is restored, as demonstrated in my study of retired professional dancers. In young athletes RED-S could result in suboptimal peak bone mass (PBM) and associated impaired bone microstructure. Not an ideal situation if RED-S continues into adulthood.

Another consequence of metabolic, physiological and psychological stressor input to the hypothalamus is suppression of the secretion of thyroid hormones, including the tissue conversion of T4 to the more active T3. Athletes may display a variation of “non-thyroidal illness/sick euthyroid” where both TSH and T4 and T3 are in low normal range. Thyroid hormone receptors are expressed in virtually all tissues which explains the extensive effects of suboptimal levels of T4 and T3 in RED-S including on physiology and metabolism.

In contrast, a neuroendocrine control axis that is activated in RED-S is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In this axis, stressors increase the amplitude of the pulsatile secretion of CRH, which in turn increases the release of ACTH and consequently cortisol secretion from the adrenal cortex. Elevated cortisol suppresses immunity and increases risk of infection. Long term cortisol elevation also impairs the other hormone axes: growth hormone, thyroid and reproductive. In other words the stress response in RED-S amplifies the suppression of key hormones both directly and indirectly via endocrine network interactions.

The original female athlete triad is part of RED-S which can involve male and female athletes of all ages. There are a range of interacting endocrine systems responsible for the multi-system effects seen in RED-S. These effects can impact on current and future health and sports performance.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Teaching module on RED-S for BASEM as CPD for Sports Physicians

Optimal health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Optimal health: including male athletes! Part 2 Relative Energy Deficiency in sports Dr N.Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine 4/4/17

Optimal health: especially young athletes! Part 3 Consequences of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports Dr N. Keay, British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine

Keay N, Fogelman I, Blake G. Effects of dance training on development,endocrine status and bone mineral density in young girls. Current Research in Osteoporosis and bone mineral measurement 103, June 1998.

Jenkins P, Taylor L, Keay N. Decreased serum leptin levels in females dancers are affected by menstrual status. Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society. June 1998.

Keay N, Dancing through adolescence. Editorial, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol 32 no 3 196-7, September 1998.

Keay N, Effects of dance training on development, endocrine status and bone mineral density in young girls, Journal of Endocrinology, November 1997, vol 155, OC15.

Relative Energy Deficiency in sport (REDs) Lecture by Professor Jorum Sundgot-Borgen, IOC working group on female athlete triad and IOC working group on body composition, health and performance. BAEM Spring Conference 2015.

Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, Carter S, Constantini N, Lebrun C, Meyer N, Sherman R, Steffen K, Budgett R, Ljungqvist A. The IOC consensus statement: beyond the Female Athlete Triad-Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S).Br J Sports Med. 2014 Apr;48(7):491-7.

“Subclinical hypothydroidism in athletes”. Lecture by Dr Kristeien Boelaert at BASEM Spring Conference 2014 on the Fatigued Athlete

From population based norms to personalised medicine: Health, Fitness, Sports Performance Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Optimal health: especially young athletes! Part 3 Consequences of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports

13 January 2017

In my previous blogs I have described the adverse effects of Relative Energy Deficiency in sports (RED-S) in both female and male athletes both in terms of current health and sport performance and potential long term health problems. What about young aspiring athletes? There is concern that early sport specialisation, imbalances in training not covering the full range of the components of fitness, together with reduced sleep, all combine to increase injury risk. Young athletes are particularly vulnerable to developing RED-S during a period of growth and development accompanied by a high training load.

Sufficient energy availability and diet quality, including micronutrients, is especially important in young athletes. To investigate further I undertook a three year longitudinal study involving 87 pre- and post-pubertal girls, spread across control pupils at day school together with students in vocational training in both musical theatre and ballet streams. There was a gradation in hours of physical exercise training per week ranging from controls with least, followed by musical theatre, through to ballet stream with the most.

In all girls dietary, training and menstrual history were recorded and collected every six months. At the same visit anthropometric measurements were performed by an experienced Paediatric nurse and bloods were taken for Endocrine markers of bone metabolism and leptin. Annual DEXA scans measured body composition, total body bone mineral density (BMD) and BMD at lumbar spine (including volumetric) and BMD at femoral neck.

The key findings included a correlation between hours of training and the age of menarche and subsequent frequency of periods. In turn, any menstrual dysfunction was associated with low age-matched (Z score) BMD at the lumbar spine. There were significant differences between groups for age-matched (Z score) of BMD at lumbar spine, with musical theatre students having the highest and ballet students the lowest. There were no significant differences in dietary intake between the three groups of students, yet the energy expenditure from training would be very different. In other words, if there is balance between energy availability and energy expenditure from training, resulting in concurrent normal menstrual function, then such a level of exercise has a beneficial effect on BMD accrual in young athletes, as demonstrated in musical theatre students. Conversely if there is a mismatch between energy intake and output due to high training volume, this leads to menstrual dysfunction, which in turn adversely impacts BMD accrual, as shown in the ballet students.

I was fortunate to have two sets of identical twins in my study. One girl in each twin pair in the ballet stream at vocational school had a twin at a non-dance school. So in each twin set, there would be identical genetic programming for age of menarche and accumulation of peak bone mass (PBM). However the environmental influence of training had the dominant effect, as shown by a much later age of menarche and decreased final BMD at the lumbar spine in the ballet dancing girl in each identical twin pair.

After stratification for months either side of menarche, the peak rate of change for BMD at the lumbar spine was found to be just before menarche, declining rapidly to no change by 60 months post menarche. These findings suggest that optimal PBM and hence optimal adult BMD would not be attained if menarche is delayed due to environmental factors such as low energy density diet. If young athletes such as these go on to enter professional companies, or become professional athletes then optimal, age-matched BMD may never be attained as continued low energy density diet and menstrual dysfunction associated with RED-S may persist. Associated low levels of vital hormones such as insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and sex steroids impair bone microarchitecture and mineralisation. Thus increasing risk of injury such as stress fracture and other long term health problems. The crucial importance of attaining peak potential during childhood and puberty was described at a recent conference at the Royal Society of Medicine based on life course studies. For example, delay in puberty results in 20% reduction of bone mass.

It is concerning that RED-S continues to occur in young athletes, with potential current and long term adverse consequences for health. Young people should certainly be encouraged to exercise but with guidance to avoid any potential pitfalls where at all possible. In my next blog I will delve into the Endocrine mechanisms involved in RED-S: the aetiology and the outcomes.

For further discussion on Endocrine and Metabolic aspects of SEM come to the BASEM annual conference 22/3/18: Health, Hormones and Human Performance

References

Optimal Health: including female athletes! Part 1 Bones Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine

Optimal health: including male athletes! Part 2 Relative Energy Deficiency in sports Dr N. Keay, British Journal of Sport Medicine 4/4/17

Keay N. The modifiable factors affecting bone mineral accumulation in girls: the paradoxical effect of exercise on bone. Nutrition Bulletin 2000, vol 25, no 3. 219-222.

Keay N The effects of exercise training on bone mineral accumulation in adolescent girls. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. Vol 15, suppl 1 2000.

Keay N, Frost M, Blake G, Patel R, Fogelman I. Study of the factors influencing the accumulation of bone mineral density in girls. Osteoporosis International. 2000 vol 11, suppl 1. S31.

New S, Samuel A, Lowe S, Keay N. Nutrient intake and bone health in ballet dancers and healthy age matched controls: preliminary findings from a longitudinal study on peak bone mass development in adolescent females, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 1998

Keay N, Dancing through adolescence. Editorial, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol 32 no 3 196-7, September 1998.

Bone health and fractures in children. National Osteoporosis Society

Lifetime influences on musculoskeletal ageing and body composition. Lecture by Professor Diana Kuh, Director of MRC Unit for Lifelong Healthy Ageing, at Royal Society of Medicine, conference on Sports Injuries and sports orthopaedics. 17/1/17

Health and fitness in young people