If you are striving to reach your peak performance, then the PEAQ can help you reach your personal full potential. Click here to get started on the PEAQ
Matching your energy intake to your energy demands helps you reach your personal peak health and exercise performance. On the other hand, failing to meet your energy demands results in low energy availability. This increases your risk of developing relative energy deficiency (REDs) and its adverse health and performance consequences.
People of any age, whatever their level and type of exercise, can be at risk of developing REDs; from elite dancers and athletes to recreational exercisers.
The PEAQ is a mobile Application that will guide you through a series of questions about exercise, physical characteristics, nutrition, hormone function and well-being. It just takes a few minutes.
Your PEAQ report instantly generates a REDs Risk Score and provides valuable insights into your energy status and potential risks, along with guidance. The PEAQ is intended for those 16 years of age and over.
The PEAQ has been developed based on in several published research studies where the questionnaire responses and scores have been correlated with measurements of hormones and bone health in athletes in various sports [1-7] and dancers [8-12]. These questionnaires were cited in the updated International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus statement on REDs 2013.
Assessment of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport, Malnutrition Prevalence in Female Endurance Runners by Energy Availability Questionnaire, Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis and Relationship with Ovulation status. Clinical Nutrition Open Science 2025S.
Body composition, malnutrition, and ovulation status as RED-S risk assessors in female endurance athletes, Clinical Nutrition ESPEN 2023, 58 :720-721
Keay N, Craghill E, Francis G Female Football Specific Energy Availability Questionnaire and Menstrual Cycle Hormone Monitoring. Sports Injr Med 2022; 6: 177
Nicolas J, Grafenuer S. Investigating pre-professional dancer health status and preventative health knowledge Front. Nutr. Sec. Sport and Exercise Nutrition. 2023 (10)
Nicola Keay, Martin Lanfear, Gavin Francis. Clinical application of monitoring indicators of female dancer health, including application of artificial intelligence in female hormone networks. Internal Journal of Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2022; 5:24.
Nicola Keay, Martin Lanfear, Gavin Francis. Clinical application of interactive monitoring of indicators of health in professional dancers J Forensic Biomech, 2022, 12 (5) No:1000380
Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey DM et al 2023 International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) British Journal of Sports Medicine 2023;57:1073-1098
This article explores the current state of play regarding relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs), highlighting the recent updates from the International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus statement September 2023. Psychological factors and mental health are recognised as having a reciprocal relationship in both the aetiology and outcome of chronic low energy availability leading to REDs. This has important implications in terms of prevention and management of individuals experiencing REDs. Unintentional or intentional unbalanced behaviours around exercise and nutrition leads to a situation of low energy availability. Low energy availability is not synonymous with REDs. Rather cumulative, sustained low energy availability, particularly low carbohydrate availability, leads to the clinical syndrome of REDs comprising a constellation of adverse consequences on all aspects of health and performance. This situation can potentially arise in both biological sexes, all ages and level of exerciser. This is of particular concern for the young aspiring athlete or dancer, where behaviours are being established and in terms of long-term consequences on mental and physical health. The mechanism of sustained low energy availability leading to these negative health outcomes is through the adaptive down regulation of the endocrine networks. Therefore, raising awareness of the risk of REDs and implementing effective prevention and identification strategies is a high priority.
Introduction
Relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) was first described in the International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus statement published in the British Journal of Sports and Exercise Medicine (BJSM) 2014(Mountjoy, 2014). Since then, there have been updates published in 2018 (Mountjoy, 2018) and most recently in September 2023 (Mountjoy, 2023).
Seminal studies of female collegiate runners in 1980s found that those athletes with higher weekly training load, but same food intake as those with lower training load, experienced menstrual disruption, including secondary amenorrhoea and poor bone health (Drinkwater, 1984). This led to the description of the female athlete triad, which comprises a clinical spectrum of eating patterns, menstrual function and bone health. This ranges from optimal fuelling, menstrual function and bone health; to eating disorders, amenorrhoea and osteoporosis.
However, with further evidence emerging it became apparent that the impact of under fuelling is not confined to menstrual and bone health. Rather that the consequences of under fuelling are multisystem and can include male athletes. This led to the initial description of REDs in 2014 as a syndrome comprised of the potential adverse effects on many systems in the body with both physical and mental health implications. Crucially, unlike the female athlete trad, REDs also included the potential negative sequalae on athletic performance. Ultimately the goal for all athletes is to perform to their best, so REDs is not something of interest just in academic or clinical circles. REDs is highly relevant to both biological sexes and all levels and ages of exerciser.
What is Energy Availability?
The underlying aetiology of REDs is low energy availability. The life history theory describes how biological processes compete for energy resources (Shirley, 2022). Energy requirement for movement is prioritised from an evolutionary point of view in order to take evasion action from predators. The residual energy from food intake is described as energy availability. This is roughly equivalent to resting metabolic rate for the individual. Simply lying in bed all day, staying alive, is high energy demand for humans as homeotherms. The numerical value of energy availability is expressed in Kcals/Kg of fat free mass. The energy availability requirement for health will vary between individuals depending on sex, age and body composition. Although energy availability is a very useful concept, in practice is it not actually measured outside of the research setting. Rather objective surrogates indicating energy availability can be measured such as triiodothyronine (T3) which is used as a primary indicator of low energy availability as outlined in the update REDs clinical assessment tool described in further detail below (Stellingwerff, 2023 ).
An important highlight from the updated consensus statement on REDs is that it is specifically low carbohydrate availability that is most detrimental, especially for reproductive hormone networks. Comparing isocaloric intake, where there is a low proportion of energy from carbohydrate, this has the most marked negative consequence on both hormone health and performance. The mechanism of sustained low carbohydrate availability appears to involve the hormone leptin, an adipokine, secreted by adipose tissue. Low levels of leptin cause suppression of the reproductive axis via the hypothalamus-pituitary axis (Keay, 2022).
Aetiology of Low Energy Availability
Low energy availability is a situation where, once energy demand from movement has been met, the residual energy available is insufficient to support the functioning of other biological life process.
Low energy availability could arise unintentionally or intentionally (Keay, 2019). Unintentional low energy availability is where an exerciser does not appreciate the energy demands of exercise and other activities with an energy demand. For example, many athletes will not consider the energy required to “commute” to a training session on foot or bike. Unintentional low energy availability could be due to practical issues: for example, a long cycle ride over several hours will require the cyclist to take nutritional sources in the pockets of clothing and/or plan ahead suitable stops where it is possible to obtain nutrition. Similarly, going on a training camp, especially at altitude, will greatly increase energy demand from exercise and needs to factored in. Finances could also be a limiting factor.
On the other hand, intentional low energy availability is where an exerciser intentionally restricts nutrition intake in the belief that this might confer a performance advantage in terms of body weight, composition or shape. This is particularly associated with any exercise against gravity such as running, road cycling, climbing; weight category sports like martial arts and aesthetic forms of sport (diving, gymnastics) and dance.
For individuals with intentional low energy availability, psychology and mental health can have a reciprocal interaction (Pensgaard, 2023). Those exercisers with personality characteristics such as self-motivation, perfectionism can be very laudable traits in terms of dedication to exercise training to achieve success. However, when these characterises impact and support rigid behaviours around training and nutrition, this can become problematic. This is shown in Figure 1 “Psychological factors in REDs”. Those who are able to adapt to external pressures and have a flexible approach to training and nutrition are more likely to experience positive outcomes. Whereas those who have a more rigid approach, which might include disordered eating and or an eating disorder and/or exercise dependence are more likely to experience negative outcomes. This reinforces self-doubt and culminates in a vicious circle of perpetuating rigid behaviours and negative outcomes in terms of both physical and mental health.
Evidence for this interaction between psychological factors and risk of REDs was found in our study of dancers, referenced in the updated IOC consensus statement. A significant relationship was found between psychological factors such as anxiety around body shape/weight and missing training. These psychological factors in turn had significant associations between physical manifestations of low energy availability (low body weight) and physiological outcomes (menstrual irregularity) (Keay, 2020). Similarly, in more of our published research papers referenced in the IOC consensus statement focusing on male athletes, an significant association was found between cognitive nutritional restraint and negative physiological and performance outcomes (Jorov, 2021).
This reciprocal interaction between internal and external factors is a systems biology approach, highlighted in the recent updated IOC consensus statement. From a physiological point of view the brain is a high energy demand organ, requiring a good supply of glucose. So low carbohydrate availability will restrict this cerebral supply, which can impair cognitive function and ultimately good decision making. It is interesting to reflect that the neuroendocrine gatekeeper, the hypothalamus keeps a watching brief on internal and external factors, not distinguishing between the source of stressors when putting in motion an adaptive response (Keay, 2022).
Consequences of Low Energy Availabiity
Low energy availability is not synonymous with REDs. Indeed, short term low energy availability might initially bring some good performances. Low energy availability becomes problematic depending on the time scale, which in turn determines the degree of adaptive response, described in the clinical physiological model of REDs (Burke, 2023). The first system to adapt to low energy availability is bone: bone turnover moves in favour of resorption over formation. This is why bone stress responses, specifically bone stress fractures, can be an early warning sign of REDs and designated a primary indicator in the updated IOC consensus statement. There will follow sequential down regulation of metabolic rate mediated via the thyroid axis, followed by the reproductive axis. In women primary amenorrhoea or sustained functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea (FHA) of 6 months or more duration is a severe primary indicator of REDs. In men, low rage testosterone is a severe primary indicator. Ultimately body composition will be adversely affected, with the only endocrine system to be up regulated being that of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (Keay, 2019).
Health
Cumulative low energy availability causes the syndrome of REDs, which produces progressive adverse effects on all aspects of health: physical, mental and social, described in the REDs conceptual model. Poor sleep will compound these negative health effects (Keay, 2022).
Performance
Although there may be some initial good performances, chronic low energy availability will result in adverse performance consequences of REDs, described in the REDs performance conceptual model. In our referenced papers in the consensus statement, we found that in male athletes, short term low energy availability impacted performance (Jurov, 2022). In another of our referenced studies we showed that male cyclists in sustained low energy availability over 6 months, not only experienced bone loss commensurate to astronauts in space, but these cyclists also underperformed compared to their energy replete fellow cyclists (Keay, 2019). On a positive note, explaining to athletes and dancers that improving energy availability will improve their performance, can help in overcoming problematic behaviours.
Identification of those at risk
In view of the potential adverse health and performance effects of REDs, it is a priority to raise awareness of this risk to affect prevention. To this end the British Association of Sports and Exercise Medicine (BASEM) has a website health4performance.co.uk dedicated to providing reliable information on REDs for athletes, parents, coaches and health care professionals together with BASEM endorsed online courses. Targeting and identifying those at increased risk is very important. Young athletes and dancers can be most severely affected as down regulation of hormone function due to low energy availability can cause delay in growth and development. In particular, delayed puberty and menarche dampens the accrual of peak bone mass, with implications for bone health (Keay, 2000). Furthermore, there is evidence that these adverse effects on bone health might not be fully reversible (Keay, 1997)
From a psychological point of view, the young aspiring athlete and dancer is also at heightened risk. Explored and viewed by many dancers in “The Dark Side of Ballet Schools” Panorama (season 33, episode 28). Selection for specialised training will inevitably favour those who are self-motivated and dedicated. In a group of individuals sharing similar psychological traits this could act as a “breeding ground” for reinforcing these characteristics in ways that could lead to behaviours which are not conducive to positive outcomes. Rather reinforcing the negative interpretation of external and internal factors, leading to a vicious circle of reinforcing attitudes and behaviours leading to REDs, as described in Figure 1
Risk stratification
Early identification of those at risk of developing REDs is an important preventative strategy. Especially for young aspiring athletes and dancers where behaviours around eating and exercise are being developed and established. A step-by-step approach is provided in the updated version 2 of the Relative Energy Deficiency in sport Clinical Assessment Tool (REDsCat v2) to identify and risk stratify individuals (Stellingwerff, 2023 ). Initial, low cost, screening questionnaires can be helpful, particularly if tailored to a specific sport/activity or dance. For example: sports specific energy availability questionnaire (SEAQ) (Keay, 2018) and dance energy availability energy questionnaire (DEAQ) (Keay, 2020). This can be helpful in identifying those individuals where further investigation is clinically indicated. As REDs is a diagnosis of exclusion, targeted blood testing excludes medical conditions per se and provide objective quantification in the stratification of risk. Severe primary indicators of REDs are issues in the reproductive axis: long duration of amenorrhoea in females and low range testosterone in males.
From a combination of all these results the individual can be placed in an appropriate risk category. The updated REDs CAT v2 includes a finer grained approach with four categories from green, yellow, amber to red.
This assessment also provides the background on which to base the appropriate level of support. For all, management will be directed at restoring energy availability and include modification of training and nutritional intake. However, the details will vary according to the severity of REDs. Individuals with intentional REDs, especially when formally diagnosed with an eating disorder, will need most intensive input than a person with transient unintentional low energy availability.
Management
A nuanced approach is required for individual athletes, depending on their risk stratification and biopsychosocial factors. In all cases some degree of psychological support will be helpful. Involvement of the extended multidisciplinary team is ideal: medical doctor, dietician, coach and parent (where appropriate) with the athlete/dancer at the centre.
In order to restore energy availability this will require careful discussion around nutrition in terms of consistency of eating patterns and composition of food groups consumed. This starts with regular meals containing good portions of complex carbohydrate and protein. Studies show that inconsistent intake of carbohydrate (eg “backloading” eating to the evening) produces an unfavourable hormone profile. Fuelling around training is also a high priority for hormone health and driving positive adaptations to exercise. Pre training consumption of carbohydrate together with post training refuelling with both complex carbohydrate and protein within 20 minutes of stopping are important behaviours for favourable hormone response to exercise (Keay, 2022).
In terms of pharmacological intervention, NICE guidelines have been updated 2022 in recommending body identical hormone replacement therapy (HRT) over the combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP) for bone protection in those with evidence of bone poor health due to functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea (FHA) as a consequence of REDs (BASEM, 2023). Poor bone health is defined as age matched Z score < -1 of the lumbar spine (trabecular bone particularly sensitive to low oestradiol) and/or 2 or more stress fractures at a site of concern (trabecular rich bone). For male athletes/dancers external testosterone is not appropriate as this supresses internal hormone production. Furthermore, testosterone is on the world anti-doping authority (WADA) banned list and it is not possible to obtain a therapeutic use exemption (TUE) as REDs is a functional condition, not a medical condition.
Prevention
Prevention is always the ultimate goal. In order to achieve this aim, a cultural shift in sport and dance is required. Emphasis on the fact that health is a prerequisite for performance. Pursuing a lighter body weight or leaner body composition will not automatically lead to improved performance. Each individual will have a personal tipping point. As we are all different, there is no such thing as a generic “ideal” weight/shape/body composition.
In practical terms, prevention can be considered as primary, secondary and tertiary (Torstveit, 2023). Primary prevention consists of providing and disseminating reliable educational resources. Secondary prevention includes early identification of those at risk of developing REDs, together with prompt and correct diagnosis. For example, regardless of whether an athlete or dancer, amenorrhoea in a woman of reproductive age (apart from physiological amenorrhoea of pregnancy) is never “normal”; whether blood tests are in range, or not. The tertiary level of prevention encompasses evidence-based treatments. As mentioned above, NICE guidelines are now in line with Endocrine Society and IOC in advising temporising HRT for bone protection in FHA. Not the COCP which masks underlying hormone dysfunction and is not bone protective. Similarly, thyroxine is not advised where there is downregulation of this axis as a consequence of REDs. This is not the same as the medical condition of a primary underactive thyroid indicated by raised thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) (Keay, 2022).
Conclusion
Ultimately, we all have a role to play in supporting exercisers, athletes and dancers in avoiding “the REDs card” (Mountjoy, 2023). This involves the extended multidisciplinary team, starting with the individual exerciser, family, friends and coaches. Then bringing in health care professionals from medicine, dietetics and physiotherapy.
Imbalances in behaviours around exercise and nutrition can have potential negative consequences on all aspects of health and performance. On a positive note, exercise, supported with appropriate nutrition, is an excellent way to achieve and maintain optimal physical, mental and social health and support performance. This is applicable for all ages and levels of exercisers from the recreational to the amateur and elite athlete.
References
Burke LM, Ackerman KE, Heikura IAet al. Mapping the complexities of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): development of a physiological model by a subgroup of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Consensus on REDs British Journal of Sports Medicine 2023;57:1098-1108.
Drinkwater B, Nilson K, Chesnut C. Bone Mineral Content of Amenorrheic and Eumenorrheic Athletes N Engl J Med 1984; 311:277-281 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198408023110501
Jurov I, Keay N, Hadžić V et al. Relationship between energy availability, energy conservation and cognitive restraint with performance measures in male endurance athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2021;18:24. doi:10.1186/s12970-021-00419-3
Jurov I, Keay N, Spudić D et al. Inducing low energy availability in trained endurance male athletes results in poorer explosive power. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022;122:503–13. doi:10.1007/s00421-021-04857-4
Keay N, Overseas A, Francis G. Indicators and correlates of low energy availability in male and female dancers BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 2020;6:e000906. doi: 10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000906
Keay N, Francis G. Infographic. Energy availability: concept, control and consequences in relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) British Journal of Sports Medicine 2019;53:1310-1311.
Keay N, Rankin A. Infographic. Relative energy deficiency in sport: an infographic guide
British Journal of Sports Medicine 2019;53:1307-1309.
Keay N, Francis G, Hind K. Low energy availability assessed by a sport-specific questionnaire and clinical interview indicative of bone health, endocrine profile and cycling performance in competitive male cyclists BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 2018;4:e000424. doi: 10.1136/bmjsem-2018-000424
Keay N, Francis G, Entwistleet al. Clinical evaluation of education relating to nutrition and skeletal loading in competitive male road cyclists at risk of relative energy deficiency in sports (RED-S): 6-month randomised controlled trial BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 2019;5:e000523. doi: 10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000523
Keay N. The modifiable factors affecting bone mineral accumulation in girls: the paradoxical effect of exercise on bone. Nutrition Bulletin 2000, 25: 219-222. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-3010.2000.00051.x
Keay N, Fogelman I, Blake G. Bone mineral density in professional female dancers.
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Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey Det al. 2023 International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) British Journal of Sports Medicine 2023;57:1073-1097.
Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey Det al. Avoiding the ‘REDs Card’. We all have a role in the mitigation of REDs in athletes British Journal of Sports Medicine 2023;57:1063-1064.
Pensgaard AM, Sundgot-Borgen J, Edwards Cet al. Intersection of mental health issues and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): a narrative review by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on REDs British Journal of Sports Medicine 2023;57:1127-1135.
Stellingwerff T, Mountjoy M, McCluskey Wet al. Review of the scientific rationale, development and validation of the International Olympic Committee Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport Clinical Assessment Tool: V.2 (IOC REDs CAT2)—by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on REDs British Journal of Sports Medicine 2023;57:1109-1118.
International Olympic Committee relative energy deficiency in sport clinical assessment tool 2 (IOC REDs CAT2) British Journal of Sports Medicine 2023;57:1068-1072.
Shirley M, Longman D, Elliott-Sale K et al. A Life History Perspective on Athletes with Low Energy Availability. Sports Med 2022 52, 1223–1234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01643-w
Todd E, Elliot N, Keay N. Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) British Journal of General Practice 2022; 72 (719): 295-297. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp22X719777
Torstveit M, Ackerman K, Constantini N et al. Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): a narrative review by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on REDs Br J Sports Med 2023;57:1119–1126.
Although relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) and overtraining syndrome (OTS) are often described as distinct entities, these can be considered as different facets of the same unbalanced behaviours. For an exerciser these behaviours consist of exercise training load, nutritional intake and recovery.
What is RED-S?
RED-S is a clinical syndrome describing adverse consequences in terms of health and performance due to sustained low energy availability (LEA). LEA is where there is a mismatch between energy intake and the combined energy demand from exercise and resting metabolic rate.
What is OTS?
OTS is a clinical syndrome describing adverse consequences in terms of health and performance when there is sustained non-functional overreaching (NFOR). NFOR is where there is an imbalance between training load relative to recovery.
It’s all about time scales
Thinking about RED-S and OTS in more detail, neither suddenly occur overnight. Rather it is the cumulative effect of energy deficit, or lack of recovery, that causes these syndromes over longer time scales of months.
Short time scales
Facets of LEA and NFOR
For example, the occasional day of suboptimal fuelling/high energy demand, with accompanying relative low energy availability, although not ideal, is nevertheless recoverable. This is shown by the warning masque of LEA of the rotating cube. On the opposite side is the warning masque of NFOR, where there have been some occasions of insufficient recovery over a short time scale of days. As with LEA, this is potentially a recoverable situation.
Longer time scales
Facets of RED-S and OTS
In practical terms, imagine you have been on a training camp or a dance intensive over a week or two. You may have unintentionally incurred a degree of LEA and NFOR, but if you take some time to rest and refuel afterwards, then you will be able to resume usual training fitter and stronger. On the other hand, if you continue to try and train at high intensity, in relative energy deficit you will progress after more weeks and months into the alert red masques of OTS and RED-S. In each case these outcomes are different facets of the same underlying imbalances in athlete/dancer behaviours around training load, nutrition and recovery.
Practical implications
When an athlete or dancer presents with symptoms that could include fatigue, poor sleep, menstrual disruption, recurrent injury (soft tissue or bone), digestive issues and other issues; it is very important to exclude medical conditions. Once this has been done and a diagnosis of exclusion made to confirm a functional issue, then deciding whether to use the terminology RED-S or OTS has a subtle nuance because in practice these syndromes are facets of the same underlying imbalance in athlete behaviours. In all cases the most important aspect is to outline a course of action for the athlete that includes training load, nutrition and recovery, in combination.
Athlete and dancer support
For example, athletes experiencing RED-S often ask if they can restore healthy hormone network function by simply eating more while maintaining a high training load. The simple answer is that this makes recovery less certain as a high training load, specifically high intensity, will most likely mean there is also a degree of NFOR. Therefore, adjustment in all athlete behaviours in synchrony is more effective for health and performance restoration. Similarly in an athlete experiencing OTS, in addition to reduction in training load, optimising nutritional intake will help.
Prevention is always better than cure
The prevention of adverse outcomes for the athlete or dancer is the other important practical implication of considering these clinical syndromes as facets of the same underlying issue. From the rotating cube of unbalanced athlete behaviours, LEA is the precursor to RED-S. Similarly, NFOR is the precursor to OTS. The progression in each case being determined by a longer time scale. Early identification of those at risk is essential to prevent this negative progression. Reversing the situation is a far easier task physiologically and psychological at an early stage of LEA and NFOR, rather than once in a “deeper hole” of RED-S or OTS.
Conclusions
RED-S and OTS being different facets of the same underlying issues of unbalanced athlete behaviours is a concept with practical implications.
References
Keay N. Hormones, Health and Human Potential. 2022 Sequoia books Act 1 Scene 9 “A Balancing Act” and Act 1 Scene 10 “In the Red”.
“Hormones, Health and Human Potential” explains how hormones play a crucial role in determining health. Hormone networks provide the feedback mechanism by which our lifestyle and behaviours enable us to reach our personal potential.
Introduction
Over 2,000 years ago Hippocrates advocated that the “safest way to health” was through “the right amount of nourishment and exercise” for “every individual”. As it turns out Hippocrates was way ahead of his time in articulating the principles of personalised and preventative medicine.
Hormones as the missing link to health
Although Hippocrates understood that lifestyle and behaviours are key to health, he did not know why. We now know that hormones are the key players in this vital role. Hormones are instigators in bringing our DNA to life by determining gene expression. Hormones direct the production of proteins, in the optimal amounts and at the right time. Hormones work as networks to maintain mental and physical health.
Lifestyle factors influencing health through hormones networks
Complex internal negative feedback loops between hormones and the biological variables that they regulate, enable homeostasis for good physiological function. Challenges to homeostasis, due to our interactions with the environment are detected by the hypothalamus, which manages hormone network response. In this way there is another layer of feedback loops between lifestyle behaviours and hormones.
Well-balance lifestyle behaviours, in terms of quantity and timing, support healthy hormone network function, leading us to the “safest way to health”. Conversely, circadian misalignment, where lifestyle choices conflict between internal biochronometers, can lead to hormone dysregulation found in conditions such as metabolic syndrome.
Harnessing hormones as preventative and supportive medicine
A good balance of lifestyle factors can harness hormones as a form of supportive and preventative medicine. This is particularly relevant for type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome. For women, where there are physiological changes in hormones, such as occurs at menopause, attendant symptoms and impacts on long term health can be mitigated by lifestyle as part of the management of menopause. For example, exercise has been shown to have a beneficial effect on temperature regulation, metabolism, body composition, bone health and reducing the risk of breast cancer.
Athlete performance mediated by hormones
Hormones mediate the positive adaptive changes due to exercise training. Understanding these mechanisms can benefit both athletes and patients .
Imbalances in behaviours causing hormone dysregulation
Too little exercise and excess nutrition can lead to hormone dysregulation, seen in metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus. On the other hand, too much of a “good thing” can also cause health and performance issues in exercisers. Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) can occur in exercisers of all ages and levels, where there is either an unintentional or intentional mismatch between energy intake and energy demand. Consequent low energy availability causes hormone network disruption, which in the long-term results in adverse effects on both health and performance .
Conclusions
• Hormone network function plays an important role in mental and physical health • Hormones are influenced by our lifestyle behaviours of exercise, nutrition and sleep • The benefits of lifestyle behaviours are derived from the positive adaptive changes driven by hormones • Imbalances in lifestyle behaviours can cause hormone disruption leading to adverse effects on health and exercise performance
McCarthy O, Pitt J, Keay N et al Passing on the exercise baton: What can endocrine patients learn from elite athletes? Clinical Endocrinology 2022 96;(6):781-792
Keay N, Francis G Infographic. Energy availability: concept, control and consequences in relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) British Journal of Sports Medicine 2019;53:1310-1311.
“We need to treat individual women, not statistics” was the concluding sentence of an insightful BMJ Editorial 2019 [1]
However, as Caroline Criado Perez points out in her recent, science prizing-winning book, Invisible Women, in many instances there are no scientific or medical statistics on women[2].
“Where are the females?”
The efficacy of drugs is predominately initially tested in vivo on male cells. So at inception, potentially many medications, which might have been effective in females are discarded at the earliest stage of research, because no effects are observed in male cells. The trend of the default male organism in research follows through into animal experimentation on male mice. Although animal models may not be entirely predictive of effects in humans, certainly the effects in female humans will be even less certain. Does it matter that research is conducted predominately on male tissue, male organisms and men? Thalidomide, specifically one of the optimal isomers, is a drug that had devastating teratogenic effects when taken by women. Indeed, a wide range of potential sex differences in the effects and metabolism of drugs has been reported. Furthermore the action of drugs, including adverse effects, can vary according the phases of the menstrual cycle, due to variations in circulating sex steroids. For example, certain drugs are likely cause arrhythmia in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle[3]. Yet the effect of many drugs in females is not well understood, as research had not included females, let alone women in different phases of the menstrual cycle.
Why is research focused on males? There is an argument that the menstrual cycle in females is “too complicated” or including women in a study at difference phases of the menstrual cycle “will interfere with results”. Menstrual cycles have been around since women evolved, so this is not a phenomenon that is going to go away anytime soon. Therefore, welcoming the complexity of the intricate choreography of hormones during the menstrual cycle and during the lifetime of a women, is a more constructive approach. Certainly a more acceptable scientific approach is where the objective is to elucidate similarities and differences between men, rather than excluding the female half of the population and assuming no differences in physiology and metabolism exist. Furthermore there are differences between individual women. Individual women will be impacted by fluctuations of hormones during the menstrual cycle in different ways, depending on varying tissue sensitivities to steroids between individuals.
This concept is especially important in sports science where the vast majority of studies are conducted in males. As I outlined in my presentation recently at Barça Innovation Hub, before discussing external factors (training load, nutrition, recovery), researched in males, for female athletes is is vital to take into account internal bio-chronometers[4]. Circadian misalignment leads to suboptimal health and performance[5]. For female athletes, the most important cyclical variation of hormones during the menstrual cycle. Furthermore, these periodic changes in hormones have individual effects. Only when these are recognised can external factors be integrated with internal periodicity. In other words by taking account of individual internal variations, this makes it possible to provide personalised advice. Tracking menstrual cycles provides an important training metric as menstrual cycles are a barometer of healthy hormones[6]. As it becomes easier to track personal health and performance data on a daily basis, both researchers and individual women can gain a better understanding of how female physiology varies over the menstrual cycle. Optimising health and performance for the individual female athlete, makes for a stronger team.
What about in the clinical medical setting? I recently attended an excellent update on acute medicine for medical doctors. An eminent cardiologist presented a series of case studies, including a woman who started experiencing symptoms in the morning, which both she and doctors thought were due to indigestion. Eventually when this “indigestion” had not settled by later afternoon, she attended A&E. She had suffered an extensive myocardial infarction (heart attack). The cardiologist explained that even though she went to a hospital with an on-site primary percutaneous coronary intervention facility, unfortunately due to the long delay in presenting to hospital, the heart muscle had died. The opportunity had been missed to take her into the catheterisation laboratory to restore blood flow and function to the cardiac muscle. He outlined how this delay in diagnosis would have a big impact on her future quality of life and life span. Unfortunately this is not an isolated case. Women are far more likely to be misdiagnosed as not having acute coronary syndrome, when in fact they are indeed suffering a “heart attack”. Why is this? The “typical” presentation of myocardial infarction of central crushing chest pain with radiation to left neck and arm, disseminated to the public and medical students, is in fact only typical for men. Women present with “atypical” symptoms, in other words atypical for men[7]
Even where female specific statistics do exist, the emphasis should be on considering the individual woman in clinical context. The recent BMJ editorial on HRT emphasised providing women with high quality, unbiased information on which women can weigh up their personal risk/benefit outcomes from HRT. As, each woman can experience changes in hormones differently, including those occurring at the menopause; so the emphasis should be on an individual woman’s quality of life rather than epidemiological statistics[1].
There are important differences between mice, men and women.
References
[1] Rymer J, Brian, K, Regan L. HRT and breast cancer risk. BMJ Editorial 2019. dx.doi. org/10.1136/bmj.l5928
[2] Caroline Criado Perez. Royal Society Book Prize. Invisible Women. Publisher Chatto & Windus 2019
[3] Soldin O, Chung S, Mattison D. Sex Differences in Drug Disposition. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology 2011, Article ID 187103 doi:10.1155/2011/187103
[4] N. Keay “Dietary periodisation for female football players” Barca Innovation Hub conference, Camp Nou, Barcelona, 9 October 2019
Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is an issue of increasing concern in sports and exercise medicine. RED-S impact exercisers of all levels and ages, particularly where low body weight confers a performance or aesthetic advantage. Key to mitigating adverse health and performance consequences of RED-S is supporting athletes and dancers to change behaviours. These infographics aim to assist clinicians in communicating the concepts to exercisers and in implementing effective management of athletes in their care[1].
Figure 1 illustrates the concept of energy availability (EA) in RED-S. Preferentially energy derived from dietary intake covers the demands of training and the remaining energy, EA, is, quantified in Kcal/Kg of fat free mass[2]. In Figure 1, the central bar illustrates adequate EA in an athlete where energy intake is sufficient to cover the demands of training and fundamental life processes to maintain health. Conversely, low energy availability (LEA) is a situation of insufficient EA to cover basic physiological demands. LEA leads to the adverse consequences of RED-S[3]. LEA can arise unintentionally or intentionally, due to a mismatch between energy intake and energy requirement. In Figure 1 the bar on the left shows LEA resulting from reduced energy intake with maintained training load. On the right, LEA is a consequence of increased training load with maintained energy intake.
Figure 2 illustrates that EA is under the control of an athlete[4]. The three behaviours relating to training, nutrition and recovery determine EA. Integrated periodisation of these behaviours results in optimal health and performance. Conversely, an imbalance in these behaviours results in suboptimal functionally. LEA in the case of high training loads relative to nutritional intake. Thus, this figure reinforces the important point in the IOC statements on RED-S that psychological factors which determine these behaviours are key in both the development, continuation and management of RED-S[2,3].
Figure 2 also shows the temporal, synergistic effect of these behaviours to ensure a fully functioning endocrine system. Hormones are key for health and to drive positive adaptations to exercise, to improve athletic performance. Thus hormones can be informative in tracking the response of an individual to these three input variables. Furthermore, endocrine markers relate to the RED-S clinical outcome of stress fracture in athletes, being more reliable as objective, quantifiable indicators of EA than numerical calculation of EA from direct assessment[5].
Authors
Nicola Keay1, Gavin Francis2
1 Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Durham University
2 Science4Perforamnce, London
Br J Sports Med 2019;0:1–2. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2019-100611
References
1 http://health4performance.co.uk (accessed 21/01/2019) Health4Performance Educational BASEM website raising awareness of RED-S Working group on RED-S British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine 2018
2 Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L et al. IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update Br J Sports Med2018;52(11):687-697
3 Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L et al. The IOC consensus statement: beyond the Female Athlete Triad–Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). Br J Sports Med2014;48(7):491-7
4 Burke L, Lundy B, Fahrenholtz L et al, & Melin. Pitfalls of conducting and interpreting estimates of energy availability in free-living athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism2018; 28(4):350–363. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0142
5 2Heikura I, Uusitalo A, Stellingwerff T et al. Low energy availability is difficult to assess but outcomes have large impact on bone injury rates in elite distance athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism2018; 28(4):403–411. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0313
Although improvements are being made in raising awareness and in effective medical management of relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S)[1, 2] what about once an athlete/dancer is “medically cleared” to return to sport/dance? What advice/support is there for athletes/dancers and their coaches/teachers? After discussions with coaches, here are some suggestions on how to achieve return to sport/dance after RED-S.
To recap, RED-S is a situation of low energy availability (LEA), which can lead to adverse health and performance consequences[3,4]. LEA can be a result of intentional energy restriction, which covers a spectrum of issues with eating from disordered eating to full blown clinical eating disorder. Ironically the original intention of these eating issues may have been to improve athletic performance, yet sustained LEA will ultimately lead to stagnation and deterioration in performance as found in male athletes[5].
The desire to return to full fitness can be a powerful incentive to address LEA. Nevertheless return to sport/dance needs to be carefully structured in collaboration with coaches to prevent injury and avoiding regression to the LEA state.
Structured return to training and nutrition
Initially focus should be on body weight strength and conditioning (S&C). Inevitably in RED-S adaptive responses to training stimuli will be dampened due to shut down of hormones networks into an energy saving mode. Once adequate EA has been established, hormone networks will be able to respond. Restoring muscle tone and working on proprioception forms a good basis to build from to mitigate injury risk. Impaired neuromuscular skills have been reported in female athletes in LEA[6], together with adverse effects of LEA on bone health increases injury risk.
The other reason for gradual return to training is that a routine of fuelling around training (before, during, after) needs to be established. In particular recovery nutrition within 30 minutes window to enable hormonal responses to training. Note that having this recovery nutrition does not mean reducing intake at the next meal!
Long endurance should be eased into after restoring muscle strength and control, in order to prevent injury. Additionally this type of training will necessitate a higher energy requirement. If adequate energy availability has only recently been restored, the balance is fragile and so too much training too soon can have negative effects. Especially if a fuelling strategy around training has not been established as described above.
High intensity/interval training should be the last type of training to be resumed as this places the highest stress and requires the highest energy demand on the athlete/dancer.
Injury, soft tissue and bone stress responses are more frequent in hormonal dysfunction of RED-S in both male and female athletes[7]. If an injury has been sustained during this period of LEA then particular emphasis needs to be on initial S&C. In the case of previous bone stress responses, multi-direction loading is key to build bone strength before resuming formal run training in athletes who are runners. Even if a bone injury has not occurred, bone turnover is one of the first systems to be adversely impacted by RED-S, so including this type of multidirectional bone loading in the initial structured return for all athletes/dancers would be beneficial.
Discuss with your coach a realistic, attainable goal if this will help. Maybe a low key race/event several months down the track
What to look out for
Don’t ignore injury niggles, illness or fatigue. Discuss with your coach and back off if necessary. This is a process, not a sprint.
Female athletes. You may well have experienced menstrual disruption during your time in LEA. This is a crucial training metric. Please use it! If your menstruation becomes irregular/stops this is your warning sign that your body is not ready to step up training[7]. Male coaches please reinforce this and be aware of this point. Remember Gwen Jorgensen posting her periods on Training Peaks as a training metric?
Flexibility in approach. Try not to put pressure on yourself to return to your previous PBs. It is important to have a plan, but you can be flexible. Everyone is different so this process of returning to sport/dance does not have a set, rigid timetable.
Enjoyment! Don’t forget the original reason that you started your sport/dance was for enjoyment! This is an opportunity to rediscover that joy, whether you return to competition or not.
“Recovery?” Does anyone fully “recover” from disordered eating/eating disorder? I don’t think so. To be a successful athlete, or indeed successful in life you need self-motivation, drive, determination. All admirable qualities, but sometimes these can get diverted to cause unhealthy eating/training patterns. So be aware that in times of stress it may be tempting to revert to old habits of under eating/over exercise to reassure yourself that you are in control.
Be prepared for questions: why have you been off training? Why are you not doing fully training schedule? Maybe you want to tell your team mates/friends. Maybe you don’t. That is your call.
So good luck with your return to sport/dance after RED-S, if that is what you want to do. Always discuss with you coach how to approach this.
5 Reduced Neuromuscular Performance in Amenorrheic Elite Endurance Athletes.
Tornberg Å Melin A Koivula F Johansson A Skouby S et. al.Medicine and science in sports and exercise 2017 vol: 49 (12) pp: 2478-2485
6 Low Energy Availability Is Difficult to Assess but Outcomes Have Large Impact on Bone Injury Rates in Elite Distance Athletes Heikura, Ida A. Uusitalo, Arja L.T. Stellingwerff, Trent et al International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 2018, 28, 4, 403-411
Menstrual periods are a barometer of healthy hormones. The evolutionary purpose of ovulation is to reproduce. Furthermore the carefully biologically choreographed variation of hormones that occurs during an ovulatory menstrual cycle is crucial to health and athletic performance.
Why? Hormones are chemical messengers that have far reaching effects throughout the body and drive the beneficial adaptations to exercise. In the case of menstrual cycles, the fluctuations of oestrogen and progesterone are key to this process. The effects of these sex steroids go far beyond reproduction. These hormones play important roles in bone strength, cardiovascular health, optimal lipid profile and production of neurotransmitters to regulate mood. The effects of low levels of oestrogen and progesterone are well documented in menopausal women who experience loss in bone mass, risk of osteoporosis and fracture, together with an increase risk of cardiovascular disease.
Some definitions
Amenorrhoea=lack of menstrual cycles
Menarche= start of menstrual cycles
According to the Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
Primary Amenorrhoea: no onset of menstrual cycles by age 16 years.
Secondary amenorrhoea: cessation of menstrual cycles in a previously regularly menstruating woman for > 6months
Oligomenorrhoea: < 9 menstrual cycles per calendar year
Any form of amenorrhoea requires medical investigation to exclude an underlying medical condition. The most common medical causes of amenorrhoea are polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), prolactinoma, thyroid conditions and other endocrine conditions. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea (FHA) is a diagnosis of exclusion. In other words before arriving at a diagnosis of FHA [1], medical conditions that could potentially cause amenorrhoea have to be ruled out.
Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a situation of low energy availability (LEA) that can be unintentional or intentional as a result of a mismatch between energy intake and energy requirement. The two sources of energy demand arise from exercise training load and maintenance of fundamental physiological function across multiple body systems [2]. In female athletes/dancers with RED-S the most obvious clinical sign is amenorrhoea as a result of FHA. In all cases of RED-S the management strategy is directed to address the underlying issue of LEA [3].
In female athletes/dancer with FHA due to RED-S, there is the possibility of pharmacological intervention based on the RED-S Clinical Assessment Tool [4]. In other words evidence from DXA of Z-score of lumbar spine < -1 and/or stress fracture. What are the most effect hormonal interventions in such cases?
What’s in a name? It is every woman’s right to choose the form of contraception she wishes to use. Hormonal contraception provides a convenient method. The combined oral contraceptive pill (OCP) contains oestrogen and progesterone to prevent ovulation. The OCP produces regular withdrawal bleeds in response to these external hormones. Progesterone-only contraception can be taken orally, via implant or delivered by an intrauterine coil and typically does not produce withdrawal bleeds. As with any medication there are potential side effects, which have to be weighed up against the benefits. Regarding the effect of hormonal contraception on bone in young menstruating women, there is evidence that such medication can impair bone health [5].
The OCP produces regular withdrawal bleeds. These are NOT menstrual periods; ovulation is prevented. Rather the OCP causes withdrawal bleeds driven by external non-physiological hormones, as opposed to internally physiologically produced hormones. This is a reason why the OCP is not recommended in FHA, as this medication will mask what is happening with internal hormones [6]. In other words the barometer of healthy hormones has been removed when taking the OCP.
Furthermore, studies show that the OCP can impact other hormone systems that play a role in bone health. The OCP is taken orally thereby producing first pass effects in the liver. These effects include induction of liver enzymes and increased production of binding proteins for hormones. Binding proteins reduce the freely available active form of hormones such insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). This effect is particularly marked in those OCP with non-physiological ethinyl oestradiol. In the case of RED-S there is already a low level of active IFG-1, due to the general suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.
Therefore in addition to masking FHA, the OCP can also further decrease IGF-1 and thus compound the negative effect on bone. This has been shown to be the case in the clinical setting where the OCP was found to have no bone protective effect on bone mineral density (BMD) in women with FHA. Rather hormone replacement therapy (HRT) consisting of transdermal physiological oestrogen with cyclic micro-ionised progesterone was found to have a positive effect on BMD [7 , 8]
Therefore, if hormonal treatment is to be used in RED-S, HRT (transdermal oestradiol and cyclic micro-ionised progesterone) is best clinical practice. This decision requires careful discussion with the athlete/dancer clarifying that HRT should only be a short-term measure to protect bone health whilst the underlying issue of LEA is being resolved. Behavioural measures relating to training load, nutrition and recovery are essential to restore global hormonal function.
OCP V HRT
• What? Both provide oestrogen and progesterone, but in different forms: non-physiological v physiological
• Why? Purpose of the OCP is to suppress production of endogenous female hormones and prevent ovulation. Purpose of HRT is to replace the physiological amount and form of oestrogen and progesterone
• How? The OCP decreases levels of active, unbound IGF-1. Not bone protective in FHA of RED-S. HRT shown to improve BMD in FHA of RED-S
What to do? Hormonal contraception is a choice for women. In some medical conditions where there is adequate/excess oestrogen such as endometriosis or PCOS, hormonal contraception is effective in clinical management. However in the case of FHA, in particular when occurring as a consequence of LEA in RED-S there is evidence that the OCP is not bone protective and masks the clinical sign of menstruation.
The priority in managing RED-S is to address LEA. If bone protection is required, whilst addressing LEA, HRT (transdermal oestrogen and cyclic progesterone) is best clinical practice.
References
[1] Joy, E., De Souza, M. J., Nattiv, A., Misra, M., Williams, N. I., Mallinson, R. J., … Borgen, J. S. (2014). 2014 Female Athlete Triad Coalition Consensus Statement on Treatment and Return to Play of the Female Athlete Triad. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 13(4), 219–232. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000077
[2] Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Burke, L., Carter, S., Constantini, N., Lebrun, C., … Ljungqvist, A. (2014). The IOC consensus statement: Beyond the Female Athlete Triad-Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(7), 491–497. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2014-093502
[3] Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J. K., Burke, L. M., Ackerman, K. E., Blauwet, C., Constantini, N., … Budgett, R. (2018). IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(11), 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099193
[4] Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Burke, L., Carter, S., Constantini, N., Lebrun, C., … Ackerman, K. (2015, April 1). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) clinical assessment tool (CAT). British Journal of Sports Medicine. BMJ Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2015-094873
[5] Beksinska M, Smit J, Hormonal contraception and bone mineral density. Expert Review of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2011 vol: 6 (3) pp: 305-319
[6] Gordon, C. M., Ackerman, K. E., Berga, S. L., Kaplan, J. R., Mastorakos, G., Misra, M., … Warren, M. P. (2017). Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: An endocrine society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 102(5), 1413–1439. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-00131
[7] Ackerman, K. E., Singhal, V., Baskaran, C., Slattery, M., Campoverde Reyes, K. J., Toth, A., … Misra, M. (2018). Oestrogen replacement improves bone mineral density in oligo-amenorrhoeic athletes: A randomised clinical trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine. BMJ Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099723
[8] Singhal, V., Ackerman, K. E., Bose, A., Torre Flores, L. P., Lee, H., & Misra, M. (2018). Impact of Route of Estrogen Administration on Bone Turnover Markers in Oligoamenorrheic Athletes and its Mediators. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-02143
Listen into a great discussion I had with Dr Nigel Callender an ex competitive climber and climbing coach about the “elephant in the room” in competitive climbing.
As a gravitational sport, being a light-weight climber confers a performance advantage. However, being alert to low energy availability and the clinical consequences of RED-S on health and performance is important for climbers. With climbing being included the next Olympics, then hopefully this will raise awareness of being alert to athletes at risk of low energy availability and RED-S.
Insights from Dr Nigel Callender, sports scientist turned medical doctor (anaesthetics/critical care trainee) an active researcher, largely into the exercise physiology aspects of climbing and ex-competitor, having represented Ireland at international level and been British bouldering champion before shoulder injuries ended that. Sport climbing is included in the 2020 Tokyo summer games in its three competitive disciplines; bouldering, lead climbing and speed climbing. Each sub-discipline has a slightly different athlete profile and physiological demands, but all are obviously under the heading of gravity dependent sports. Current participation figures put yearly indoor climbing participation at around the one million mark in the UK and it is said to be one of the fastest growing sports worldwide. The sport is being recognised as a great way to improve overall health and fitness, with recent papers citing it as a useful rehab activity for many physical and mental health conditions and also as a health promotion tool.
Although climbing has been a formal competitive sport in some sense since the late 80’s, it still lacks much in the way of formal training and medical guidelines. Being a gravity dependent sport, strength to weight ratio is important, however Dr Callender and his colleagues are seeing a high incidence of restrictive eating patterns at all levels of the sport and a lack of awareness around the performance impairments and health risks associated with a significant or prolonged negative energy balance in some athletes.
The Outdoor Athlete Podcast is a bit of a winter project that came about to establish a gold-standard resource, driven by credible experts in their relevant fields, as an attempt to provide high-quality and evidence-based information amongst the confusing advice that is now the internet. It’s free and always will be and it was inspired by the BJSM Podcasts though broadly aiming at ‘Outdoor Athletes’ e.g. Climbers, Fell/Trail runners, Mountain bikers and anyone happy to listen.
For more information on climbing in the UK, including competition climbing see http://www.thebmc.co.uk
Health4Performance is a recently developed BASEM open access educational resource
This is a world premier: a resource developed for and by athletes/dancers, coaches/teachers, parents/friends and healthcare professionals to raise awareness of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S)
What?
Optimal health is required to attain full athletic potential. Low energy availability (LEA) can compromise health and therefore impair athletic performance as described in the RED-S clinical model.
Dietary energy intake needs to be sufficient to cover the energy demands of both exercise training and fundamental physiological function required to maintain health. Once the energy demands for training have been covered, the energy left for baseline “housekeeping” physiological function is referred to as energy availability (EA). EA is expressed relative to fat free mass (FFM) in KCal/Kg FFM. The exact value of EA to maintain health will vary between genders and individuals, roughly equivalent to resting metabolic rate of the individual athlete/dancer. LEA for an athlete or dancer will result in the body going into “energy saving mode” which has knock on effects for many interrelated body systems, including readjustment to lower the resting metabolic rate in the longer term. So although loss in body weight may be an initial sign, body weight can be steady in chronic LEA due to physiological energy conservation adaptations. Homeostasis through internal biological feedback loops in action.
The most obvious clinical sign of this state of LEA in women is cessation of menstruation (amenorrhea). LEA as a cause of amenorrhoea is an example of functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea (FHA). In other words, amenorrhoea arising as a result of an imbalance in training load and nutrition, rather than an underlying medical condition per se, which should be excluded before arriving at a diagnosis of FHA. All women of reproductive age, however much exercise is being undertaken, should have regular menstrual cycles, which is indicative of healthy hormones. This explains why LEA was first described as the underlying aetiology of the female athlete triad, as women in LEA display an obvious clinical sign of menstrual disruption. The female athlete triad is a clinical spectrum describing varying degrees of menstrual dysfunction, disordered nutrition and bone mineral density. However it became apparent that the clinical outcomes of LEA are not limited to females, nor female reproductive function and bone health in female exercisers. Hence the evolution of the clinical model of RED-S to describe the consequences of LEA on a broader range of body systems and including male athletes.
A situation of LEA in athletes and dancers can arise unintentionally or intentionally. In the diagram below the central column shows that an athlete where energy intake is sufficient to cover the demands from training and to cover basic physiological function. However in the column on the left, although training load has remained constant, nutritional intake has been reduced. This reduction of energy intake could be an intentional strategy to reduce body weight or change body composition in weight sensitive sports and dance. On the other hand in the column on the right, training load and hence energy demand to cover this has increased, but has not been matched by an increase in dietary intake. In both these situations, whether unintentional or intentional, the net results is LEA, insufficient to maintain health. This situation of LEA will also ultimately impact on athletic performance as optimal health is necessary to realise full athletic potential.
Although LEA is the underlying aetiology of RED-S, there are many methodological and financial issues measuring LEA accurately in “free living athletes“. In any case, the physiological response varies between individuals and depends on the magnitude, duration and timing of LEA. Therefore it is more informative to measure the functional responses of an individual to LEA, rather than the value calculated for EA. As such, Endocrine markers provide objective and quantifiable measures of physiological responses to EA. These markers also reflect the temporal dimension of LEA; whether acute or chronic. In short, as hormones exert network effects, Endocrine markers reflect the response of multiple systems in an individual to LEA. So by measuring these key markers, alongside taking a sport specific medical history, provides the information to build a detailed picture of EA for the individual, with dimensions of time and magnitude of LEA. This information empowers the athlete/dancer to modify the 3 key factors under their control of training load, nutrition and recovery to optimise their health and athletic performance.
Why?
Who is at risk of developing RED-S? Any athlete involved in sports or dance where being light weight confers a performance or aesthetic advantage. This is not restricted to elite athletes and dancers. Indeed the aspiring amateur or exerciser could be more at risk, without the benefit of a support team present at professional level. Young athletes are at particular risk during an already high energy demand state of growth and development. Therefore early identification of athletes and dancers at risk of LEA is key to prevention of development of the health and performance consequences outlined in the RED-S clinical model. Although there is a questionnaire available for screening for female athletes at risk of LEA, more research is emerging for effective and practical methods which are sport specific and include male athletes.
How?
Early medical input is important as RED-S is diagnosis of exclusion. In other words medical conditions per se need to be ruled out before arriving at a diagnosis of RED-S. Prompt medical review is often dependent on other healthcare professionals, fellow athletes/dancers, coaches/teachers and parents/friends all being aware and therefore alert to RED-S. With this in mind, the Health4Performance website has areas for all of those potentially involved, with tailored comments on What to look out for? What to do? Ultimately a team approach and collaboration between all these groups is important. Not only in identification of those at risk of LEA, but in an integrated support network for the athlete/dancer to return to optimal health and performance.
To recap, RED-S is a situation of low energy availability (LEA), which can lead to adverse health and performance consequences[3,4]. LEA can be a result of intentional energy restriction, which covers a spectrum of issues with eating from disordered eating to full blown clinical eating disorder. Ironically the original intention of these eating issues may have been to improve athletic performance, yet 
Dr Nicky Keay 